First, learn from foreigners-the way for a powerful country to resist aggression.
1. Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan opened their eyes to see the world.
The thought of "learning from foreigners and mastering foreign skills" reflects the advanced China people's understanding of the West in this period. It contains the following meanings: ① The gap between China and the West is mainly the difference in scientific and technological level, the strength of the West is mainly reflected in "building a strong ship", and the backwardness of China is mainly the backwardness of technology and weapons; (2) China should face up to its backwardness, dare to give up the old concept of "China will die" and learn advanced western technology to resist foreign aggression; (3) This thought is patriotic and anti-aggression, and it also maintains the feudal rule of the Qing Dynasty. But its main idea is patriotism. Lin and Wei's discussions and activities clearly show a kind of pursuit of advanced and reflection on tradition. This gave an unprecedented impact to China's ideological circle. But the tragedy of history is that their cries failed to arouse the vigilance of the rulers of the Qing Dynasty and caused greater repercussions in society. After experiencing great pain, China society fell into a deep sleep, which eventually led to the tragedy that the Second Opium War failed again.
2. Westernization school "takes middle school as the body and western learning as the use"
/kloc-in the middle of the 0/9th century, world capitalism developed rapidly, industrialization became an irresistible historical trend, and a new scientific and technological revolution was coming out. During the 65438+early 1960s, an innovative force split within the ruling clique of the Qing Dynasty. They advocated learning from the west, "learning from foreigners to strengthen themselves" and maintaining the feudal rule of the Qing Dynasty, so they were called Westernization School. The Westernization School is mostly an enlightened Han official among the landlord class. They realize that only by introducing foreign technology, talents and equipment, developing industry and enhancing military strength can the country become strong. Their theoretical basis is "middle school as the body, western learning for use".
The Westernization Movement took the first step in China's modernization. Under the pressure of foreign countries, the policy of closing the country to the outside world finally gave way to reform and opening up. Its failure made China lose a historical opportunity to catch up with the world powers, and the degree of semi-colonization of China was even deeper. The failure of Westernization Movement tells people that the decadent feudal system has become the biggest obstacle to social progress in China. Without reforming the backward social system, China will never be strong.
Second, unwilling to yield, the peasant class fought bravely.
1. Taiping Heavenly Kingdom's ideal of agricultural socialism
(1) The historical role of worshipping God
From the very beginning, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement put on the cloak of religion. Hong Xiuquan borrowed a god from the West. Through his own understanding and interpretation, he skillfully combined the western Christian doctrine with the practical needs of the peasant class's anti-feudal struggle. Through the establishment and propaganda of worshipping God, Hong Xiuquan gathered countless farmers at the bottom of society under the banner of religion. Realizing the social ideal of equality and great harmony has been the goal pursued by the peasant class in China for thousands of years. Once the concept of worshipping God is accepted by the masses, it will have great power. From jintian uprising to Tianjing, its capital, the Taiping Army is invincible and its spiritual strength cannot be underestimated. Therefore, the worship of God actually became a weapon for Hong Xiuquan to publicize and launch the anti-Qing revolution. However, the worship of God is not a scientific ideological weapon after all. The contradiction between its religious teachings and China's traditional social value orientation prevented it from producing lasting spiritual strength and material energy, which eventually led to failure.
(2) the evaluation of "Tianmu system in China"
As the revolutionary program of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, the "celestial system" painted a beautiful picture of agricultural socialism for people. It clearly advocated the abolition of feudal land ownership, which was a complete denial of the feudal land system, thus inheriting and developing the struggle thought of peasant uprisings in previous dynasties and becoming the peak of the peasant movement in China for thousands of years. However, the system of equal distribution and public ownership of property violated the wishes of small farmers to develop private property and expand private economy, violated the laws of social development, not only seriously hindered the development of social productive forces, but also could not be realized in the society at that time. It provides for the elimination of all private property and the equality of all social wealth. This is obviously contrary to the direction of China's development of capitalism at that time. At the same time, it regards the small-scale peasant economy as an idealized goal, and actually does not go beyond the economic category of feudalism. Due to the lack of subjective and objective conditions, this ideal of agricultural socialism can only evolve into a historical fantasy.
(3) About "a new chapter for senior ministers"
Hong Rengan was an important leader in the later period of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. He wrote a new chapter in Advanced Affairs, which is of great historical value as an advanced China people's exploration of China's social development. First of all, it has a distinctive capitalist color. It put forward a whole set of capitalist reform programs in the fields of politics, economy, culture and diplomacy. Its basic proposition is to establish and develop capitalism in China, which is the first plan put forward by advanced China people to develop capitalism in China. Secondly, it reflects the urgent desire of the advanced people of China to seek truth from the West and explore the road of saving the country and the people. However, "Senior Minister's New Chapter" was not the product of the peasant revolutionary practice in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. It did not link the development of capitalism with the elimination of feudal system, nor did it link the development of capitalism with the actual struggle in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom at that time, and failed to satisfy the peasants' urgent desire for land, thus failing to arouse widespread repercussions among peasants. Therefore, the "Senior Minister's New Chapter" could not be implemented at that time.
(4) The reasons why the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement failed.
The objective reason is the joint strangulation of Chinese and foreign reactionary forces. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement took place when China began to become a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. The enemies it has to deal with are not only the rulers of the Qing Dynasty, the center of feudal power, but also foreign capitalist aggressors. In order to safeguard their own interests, reactionary forces at home and abroad colluded with each other to suppress the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement.
2. The Boxer Movement "helped the Qing Dynasty to destroy the foreign countries"
(1) slogan "Help clear up and destroy the ocean"
/kloc-At the end of 0/9, imperialism set off a frenzy to carve up China, and the Chinese nation faced a serious life-and-death choice. China people's patriotic struggle against imperialism reached a climax. The slogan "Help the Qing Dynasty to Destroy the Foreign Countries" put forward by the Boxer Movement embodies the extreme hatred of the people of China towards imperialism and has a distinctive patriotic color. The slogan "Destroy the Ocean" reflected that ethnic contradictions had become the main contradiction in China society at that time, and fully demonstrated the hatred of China people for imperialist aggression, thus attracting and mobilizing the broad masses of people to attack imperialist aggression. However, the Boxer Movement could not correctly distinguish between foreigners and foreign invaders, foreign aggression and foreign civilization, which made the "extermination of foreign countries" with the backwardness of universal exclusion. The slogan "Fuqing" cannot be simply understood as Fuqing government. It has a very obvious content of helping China and protecting China. But it is also easy to make the masses lose their vigilance against the Qing government. Generally speaking, "helping the Qing Dynasty to destroy the foreign countries" was not a scientific slogan, which paralyzed people's vigilance against the Qing government to a certain extent, and was finally betrayed by the Qing government, which became a heavy historical lesson of the Boxer Movement. Fundamentally speaking, this is because the class status and narrow vision of farmers and small producers restrict them, making them unable to analyze and understand the Qing government and imperialism from the class essence, unable to have a scientific understanding of the development of the world situation, and thus unable to put forward a scientific anti-imperialist program and struggle strategy.
Third, pursue Europe and America and take the capitalist road.
1. Reformist constitutional monarchy
(1) The emergence and development of reform ideas
From 65438 to 70' s, with the spread of western learning to the east and the emergence of national capitalism, early reform ideas emerged. At the end of 19, the reform thought finally reached its peak. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao became the leaders of the reformists. The reformists' desire for China's political reform and capitalist development deeply touched the social theme of pursuing national independence and national prosperity, and reflected the economic interests and political demands of the growing national bourgeoisie. The reform thought greatly impacted the traditional feudal thought, shook the theoretical basis of feudal diehard forces' opposition to political reform, aroused strong repercussions in society, effectively promoted the reform movement, and laid the ideological foundation for the reform movement of 1898. The Reform Movement of 1898 +65438 pushed the Reform Movement of 1898 to a climax. 103 The New Deal is a great attempt to turn the reformist idea into a political reality and an excellent opportunity for China society to reinvent itself. However, due to the obstruction and destruction of feudal die-hards, the reform did not escape the fate of failure.
The Historical Position of the Reform Movement of 1898
The Reform Movement of 1898 took place when imperialism set off a frenzy of partition and the national crisis was serious. The representatives of the reformists are patriots, and everything they do revolves around the theme of patriotism and saving the country. Therefore, the Reform Movement of 1898 was a patriotic political movement.
The measures taken by the Reform Movement of 1898 in politics, economy, culture and education reformed the old system many times, which was conducive to the participation of intellectuals with reform ideas in political power construction, the development of capitalism in China and the spread of western science and technology. It has the support of the national bourgeoisie and enlightened landlords, as well as patriotic intellectuals. This is a top-down bourgeois reform movement. The reformists' thought of trying to develop capitalism in China and change China's poverty and weakness was in line with the historical development trend at that time and was a great progress in China's history.
The reformists attacked feudal autocracy and vigorously advocated western learning, which promoted the spread of bourgeois ideology and culture, formed the first ideological emancipation trend in modern China, and played an enlightening role in society. Therefore, the Reform Movement of 1898 is another enlightenment trend of thought.
2. Democracy and road of bourgeois revolutionaries
(1) Why did the bourgeoisie choose the revolutionary road?
After the Qing government suppressed the Reform Movement of 1898 and the Boxer Movement, signed the "Xin Chou Treaty" and implemented the New Deal bankruptcy, its decadent and reactionary nature was further exposed. With the Qing government becoming a "foreigner's court", the two social contradictions in modern China tend to converge, which is embodied in the contradiction between China people and the Qing government. The bourgeois political movement from improvement to revolution has become an urgent need and inevitable choice for social development in this period. Therefore, in the first decade of the 20th century, the conditions for bourgeois revolution were ripe. The concrete manifestations are as follows: first, the objective conditions for revolution have been met. Economically, the rapid development of national capitalism in the early 20th century became the material basis for the rise of bourgeois democratic revolution in China. In terms of class strength, with the rapid development of capitalism, the national bourgeoisie began to grow and its strength further expanded; Ideologically, at the beginning of the 20th century, the idea of democratic revolution spread widely, and revolution gradually became the main ideological trend of society. Organizationally, bourgeois revolutionary groups were widely established, and the establishment of the League made the bourgeois democratic revolution enter a new stage of unified leadership of political parties; Politically, the proposal of the Three People's Principles gave the bourgeois revolutionaries a common platform for struggle and promoted the development of the revolutionary movement. Second, the revolutionary situation is rising day by day. After the failure of the Qing court's constitutionalism, it was further isolated and declined, and the revolutionary forces continued to grow in the struggle to regain their rights and armed uprising. Third, the time is ripe for revolution. The movement of protecting roads mobilized new troops in Hubei, and the Qing court ruled emptiness in Hubei, which provided a favorable opportunity for the outbreak of Wuchang Uprising.
(2) The meaning and evaluation of the Three People's Principles.
The meaning of nationalism, first, anti-Manchu, that is, overthrowing the Manchu government; The second is independence, that is, the establishment of a "nation state." The proposal of nationalism is a reflection of ethnic contradictions and objectively reflects the requirements of the national bourgeoisie and patriots to realize national independence. But confusing anti-Qing with anti-imperialism is not clear about anti-imperialism, and it is easy to produce full emotions.
Democracy means establishing the Republic of China, overthrowing feudal autocracy and establishing bourgeois parliament. Civil rights are a sharp reflection of class contradictions, which embodies the urgent desire of the broad masses of people to get rid of feudal autocratic rule and realize democracy, freedom and equality. Civil rights are the core of the political program of the Three People's Principles and the foundation of political revolution. It is closely related to nationalism, which theoretically solves the problems that bourgeois revolutionaries need to solve urgently, that is, seizing and establishing political power, which is of great significance to revolutionary development. But what it requires is to overthrow the feudal autocratic government, not to destroy the whole landlord class, so anti-autocracy is not thorough.
The principle of people's livelihood, that is, the equality of land rights, is to gradually buy land from landlords and establish the ownership of capitalist state-owned land by verifying land prices and collecting land taxes. Its purpose is to eliminate the disparity between the rich and the poor and class opposition, and to open the way for the development of capitalism. People's livelihood is the core of Sun Yat-sen's economic thought, which embodies the national bourgeoisie's desire to liberate from the shackles of feudal relations of production and develop capitalist industry and commerce. It is the first revolutionary program in China's modern history to link the solution of land ownership with the development of capitalism, which to some extent reflects the sympathy of bourgeois revolutionaries for farmers. However, it failed to meet farmers' land requirements and mobilize farmers' enthusiasm for participating in the revolution.
In a word, the Three People's Principles are the guiding ideology of Sun Yat-sen's leading revolution and a relatively complete program of bourgeois democratic revolution. It played an important role in mobilizing and organizing the masses to overthrow the imperial system and establish a harmonious country. But it is not a thorough program of democratic revolution, and it is impossible to lead the bourgeois revolution to victory. This reflects the weakness and compromise of the bourgeois revolution.
(3) Reasons for the failure of the Revolution of 1911.
Subjectively, it is due to the weakness and compromise of the bourgeoisie. The bourgeois revolutionaries have never had a strict and thorough anti-imperialist program. The Three People's Principles did not propose to oppose imperialism, the main enemy of the Chinese nation. They don't want to break with imperialism completely, and they fantasize about getting imperialist support. Bourgeois revolutionaries have never had a thorough anti-feudal program. The Three People's Principles did not completely deny feudal land ownership. They dare not mobilize and rely on the broad masses of the people to completely overthrow feudal forces and carry out land system reform. The bourgeois revolution did not solve the problem of farmers' land, so it could not get the support of farmers. The bourgeois revolutionaries have never established their own armed forces. They are afraid of Yuan Shikai's military strength and dare not recklessly.
Objectively: the demise of imperialism. Imperialism colluded with various reactionary forces, and they used various means to resist and destroy the revolution, which provided a solid backing for Yuan Shikai to usurp the fruits of victory. Internal destruction of constitutionalists and old bureaucrats. Constitutionalists and old bureaucrats in the revolutionary regime also took the opportunity to attack revolutionaries at the critical moment of the revolution, forcing them to compromise with Yuan Shikai. Yuan Shikai's personal factors. Yuan Shikai mastered all the ruling power of the Qing Dynasty, with strong military strength and rich experience in political struggle. He used his counter-revolutionary skills, carrot and stick, and tried his best to cheat, and finally cheated the revolutionaries and usurped the fruits of revolutionary victory.
(5) Sun Yat-sen's struggle to maintain democracy and harmony after the Revolution of 1911.
From the establishment of Beiyang warlord regime to the outbreak of the "Second Revolution", the revolutionaries tried to safeguard the bourgeoisie and state power through parliamentary struggle by relying on temporary contracts, responsibility cabinet system and parliamentary elections. After the truth of the Song case came out, the revolutionaries headed by Sun Yat-sen re-embarked on the road of armed struggle. 19 13 years, Sun Yat-sen launched the second revolution of the Kuomintang to beg Yuan by force. However, due to the strength of Beiyang Army and the internal strength of Kuomintang, this struggle also ended in failure. 19 15 years, Yuan Shikai proclaimed himself emperor, and Sun Yat-sen published the Declaration of Seeking Yuan, calling on the people to maintain the * * * system and opposing Yuan Shikai's restoration of monarchy; Published the "Declaration on the Second Begging for Yuan", calling on people to carry out the struggle for Yuan to the end. As a result, Yuan Shikai's plot to restore the monarchy was defeated and the title of "Republic of China" was restored, which basically achieved the expected goal of overthrowing Yuan, but the ultimate goal of maintaining democracy and harmony was not achieved. After Yuan Shikai's death, a warlord regime appeared in China, and the restoration government and the Duan government successively refused to restore the treaty and Congress. Sun Yat-sen published the Declaration of Rebellion, calling on the people to take military action against the restoration of monarchy. After recognizing Duan's true face, Sun Yat-sen put forward the idea of overthrowing false harmony and establishing true harmony. With the call of supporting the interim constitution, raise the banner of protecting the law and ask for a section. As a result, relying on the southwest warlords to oppose the northern warlords led to the failure of the national protection movement. During this period, the bourgeois revolutionaries never put forward a revolutionary program of thorough anti-imperialism and anti-feudalism, nor did they solve the forces on which the revolution depended, which was an important reason for the failure of the struggle to safeguard democracy. At this point, the bourgeois * * * and the national road plan have completely failed.
3. The New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of preparatory constitutionalism.
(1) How to evaluate "New Deal" and "Preparatory Constitutionalism"
The contents of "New Deal" and "Preparatory Constitutionalism" generally come from the Reform Movement of 1898, but they are different in essence. As far as its purpose is concerned, it is mainly to please the great powers, contain the revolutionary situation and eliminate the ruling crisis. In terms of the New Deal, the main contents include: rewarding industry economically, setting up new schools in education and abolishing the imperial examination system, and training new troops militarily. These contents are not beyond the scope of "Chinese style and western use". 1905 "Preparatory Constitutionalism" took the first political step, but this vigorous constitutional movement eventually turned into a scam because the Qing rulers were unwilling to give up their autocratic power. However, these reforms and concessions made by the Qing government objectively conformed to the trend of social development and the aspirations of the bourgeoisie, and were conducive to the modernization of China. Westernization Movement, Reform and Reform, New Deal and Preparatory Constitutionalism were all top-down reforms adopted by the Qing government to consolidate its rule. This is the product of the impact of the world capitalist trend, but the results have all failed, and the fundamental reason lies in the backwardness of the feudal landlord class.
4. Ideological enlightenment of the New Culture Movement
The New Culture Movement is an unprecedented ideological emancipation movement in China's modern history. In the history of China, there has never been an ideological movement that dared to challenge feudal forces like the New Culture Movement, so as to break the old tradition that existed for thousands of years and promote social progress. If the reformists in the Reform Movement of 1898 were still doing that "deviant" thing in the cloak of Confucianism, and the revolutionaries in the Revolution of 1911 had not touched the ideological rule of Confucianism from the front, then the thinkers at this time were the first warriors who consciously challenged feudal ethics. The New Culture Movement has enlightened many people in China, especially young people. The New Culture Movement before the May 4th Movement was essentially a struggle of bourgeois culture against feudal old culture, which had a great response in society. The development of this movement attracted many young people, especially young students, to gather under the banner of anti-imperialism and feudalism, and made ideological preparations for a thorough anti-imperialism and feudalism political movement.
The early New Culture Movement also had great limitations. It is mainly manifested in: it is believed that the national character can be fundamentally transformed only by the struggle in the ideological field without fundamentally transforming the social environment that produced feudal thoughts. It does not reveal the social roots of Confucianism, and further points out the necessity of reforming the existing social system in China. There is no real sympathy for the sufferings of workers and peasants, and there is no combination with mass movements. There is absolute affirmation or absolute negation of formalism in the way of thinking. The fundamental reason for the initial limitations of the New Culture Movement lies in the class limitations and ideological limitations of its leaders. At that time, the bourgeois radical democrats were still at the forefront of the struggle. Their banner, the ideological weapon they used to oppose feudal autocracy, was bourgeois democracy, which was found in the arsenal of the western bourgeois revolutionary era. Their goal is to lead China to the capitalist road, so they cannot be combined with mass movements. They also have serious formalism and metaphysics in their thinking methods, and their views on China culture and western culture are extreme. Due to the limitation of class and thinking method, they can't come up with a feasible anti-imperialist and anti-feudal political plan, so they can't point out the real way out for the people of China.
5. It is difficult for industry to save the country.
The tide of saving the country by industry appeared at the end of 19, and the deepening of the national crisis greatly stimulated the patriotic enthusiasm of the Chinese people. Many national capitalists are enthusiastic about industry and hope to make the country rich and strong. They shout the slogan of saving the country through industry. The Revolution of 1911 overthrew the feudal autocratic rule, removed some obstacles for the development of Chinese national capitalism, improved the social and political status of the national bourgeoisie, and the trend of saving the country by industry became a common practice. The decree of Nanjing Provisional Government to reward industries has aroused their enthusiasm for investing in modern industries. Enterprising industrialists believe that the favorable opportunity for industrial and commercial development has arrived. The broad masses of the people launched a patriotic movement of "loving domestic products" and "boycotting Japanese goods". During World War I, the European powers were busy with the war, temporarily relaxing their economic aggression against China, and the national industry gained excellent opportunities for development, and China's national industry ushered in a "short spring". However, the good times did not last long. Shortly after the end of World War I, imperialism made a comeback and China's national industry declined rapidly. During the period of Kuomintang rule, due to the attack and oppression of bureaucratic capitalism, the national capitalist industry was dying. This fully shows that as long as the nature of China's semi-feudal and semi-colonial society is not changed and the reactionary rule of imperialism and feudalism is not overthrown, it is impossible for national industries to achieve real development and the dream of saving the country by industry will never be realized.
Fourth, learn from Soviet Russia and choose the socialist road.
1. Advanced youth accept Marxism
In the later period of the New Culture Movement, Marxism began to spread in China, and Li Dazhao became the first person to publicize socialism. After the May 4th Movement, spreading Marxism became the mainstream of the movement. Under the baptism of democracy and scientific spirit, a large number of advanced young intellectuals enthusiastically discussed and studied Marxist theory. Then, why can Marxism spread widely in China and be accepted by the educated youth?
(1) From the practice of China Revolution, in modern times, the efforts of advanced China people to seek the truth of saving the country from the west failed. Especially, the capitalist scheme that has won many wars in western countries has been defeated many times in China, which makes some advanced young people doubt and shake the western capitalist thought, and they urgently need to find a "good medicine" to solve the China problem quickly;
(2) The victory of Russian October socialist revolution turned socialism from ideal to reality, which was the result of the combination of Marxism and Russian revolutionary practice. The victory of the Russian socialist revolution has set a realistic example for the China revolution in difficulties and hardships, and also provided a new development direction for the China revolution.
As a revolutionary theory, Marxism has attracted a large number of advanced young people with its rigorous scientific and revolutionary nature. The educated youth in China consciously take Marxism as their world outlook and use the basic theory of Marxism to think about the future of China revolution. Since then, a large number of advanced youths have gathered under the banner of Marxism, and Marxism has become an ideological weapon for advanced China people to save the country.
2. The establishment of the proletarian revolutionary party
192 1 year, the conditions for the establishment of the proletarian revolutionary party in China gradually matured. (1) The growth of the proletariat in China laid a class foundation for the birth of the party; The widespread spread of Marxism laid the ideological foundation for the birth of the party; (3) The establishment of local production groups laid an organizational foundation for the birth of the Party; (4) The strong support of the Soviet Union and international producers provided strong external support for the birth of the Party. The birth of China's * * * production party has brought light and hope to the suffering people of China. Since the emergence of China's * * * production party, China's revolution has taken on a new look.