[Keywords:] Westernization Movement in China, the impact of modernization
The Westernization Movement was initiated at the beginning of 186 1. At that time, Prince Gong, an imperial envoy who stayed in Beijing to discuss peace, wholeheartedly led the performance of "overall planning and comprehensive discount". With the consent of the princes and ministers and the approval of Xianfeng, the State Administration Office of the Prime Minister's yamen was formally established. Since then, the Westernization Movement has officially started.
19 The "Westernization Movement" launched in the 1960s advocated "learning from foreigners to strengthen ourselves". /kloc-in the 9th century, the word "westernization" came into being in China. At that time, the so-called westernization meant everything involved in foreign countries, and those who advocated and presided over westernization naturally became westernization groups. When the Westernization School was just emerging, the Qing court, which was mainly a diehard old school, was hostile to it. Therefore, the Westernization School at that time can be said to be secretly engaged in Westernization, not to mention the Westernization Movement. However, in the middle of19th century, it changed. After the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Nian Army and the first and second Opium Wars, the neo-westernization faction represented by Zeng Guofan, Governor of Liangjiang, Governor Zuo of Fujian and Zhejiang, and Li Hongzhang proposed that the Qing court should abandon the past to safeguard its dominant position against foreign aggression. But the introduction of advanced western technology, with "middle school as the body and western learning as the use." As the representatives of these new Westernization Groups are all powerful military and political ministers, and the die-hards headed by Cixi also saw that they had to rely on western muskets and cannons to maintain their rule, they acquiesced in the proposal of the Westernization Group, so a Westernization Movement that influenced the fate of modern China set off a wave of "doing Westernization" all over the country, which was called "Tongguang New Deal" in history.
Westernization Movement is an important event in China's modern history. It is not only related to the emergence and development of capitalism in China, the division of the old class and the emergence of the new class, but also related to the political, economic, military, ideological and cultural changes in China at that time, which also has various influences on the social development of China in the future. The Westernization Movement opened the door to China's modernization and was the initial stage of China's modernization.
I. Political aspects
The political backwardness and external dependence of the Westernization School in the Westernization Movement decided that the Westernization Movement could only stay at the material level in the process of China's modernization, but could not enter the political and ideological level. The military industry and civil enterprises founded by the Westernization School adopted advanced material technology, but rejected and refused to adopt the corresponding political, economic and cultural systems as a guarantee. These military industries and civilian enterprises have adopted advanced materials technology. Their capitalist productive forces have begun to break through the barriers of feudal relations of production, and a new bourgeoisie has sprouted in China. However, due to the serious feudal political characteristics of the founders of the Westernization Movement, they stubbornly refused any social reform except production technology. Therefore, they firmly restricted the Westernization Movement to the feudal relations of production. In this way, in fact, the Westernization Movement entered a historical dead end from the beginning. As Li Jingwen, a famous economist, said, "Li Hongzhang has been seriously troubled by the problem of funds in the process of establishing Westernization. The funds needed are all invested by the government, and the guns he made are all allocated by the administration and cannot enter the market. This made the Westernization Movement disintegrate the feudal political and economic structure. Its cultural chronic disease is "middle school as the body". The failure of the Westernization Movement is not only due to the corruption of the Manchu government, but also because the hosts and supporters of the Westernization Movement turned science and technology into productive forces, and simply regarded it as a technology of coordinated development of politics, economy, education, science and technology, culture and other factors, which made the social structure composed of these related factors lose coordination, while the development of a single factor lost the cooperation of various social factors. "
The failure of the Westernization Movement made people of insight who inherited the Westernization Movement in the process of modernization in China see the serious defects of the Westernization Movement. If China is to embark on an independent and prosperous modernization road, it is necessary to introduce the revolution from the material and technical level to the political, ideological and cultural level. Therefore, in the Reform Movement of 1898, which was marked by the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the reformists put forward the requirements of reform. This reform movement was completed by the later Revolution of 1911, which overthrew feudal autocracy. It ended the feudal rule of the Qing Dynasty for more than 200 years, initially established the historical mission of the bourgeoisie and the country, and the modernization process of China entered a new historical period. However, the backward psychology of attachment, fear and worship of western powers exposed in the Westernization Movement hindered China's modernization, which was partially eliminated after the May 4th Movement due to the serious influence of China's semi-colonial and semi-feudal social attributes and the founding of New China, especially after the victory of the War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea. Inspired the people's self-improvement and self-love, and set off a wave of modernization. Therefore, the real historical role of the Westernization Movement does not lie in its positive role, that is, the Westernization School can face the reality, clearly observe the changes in the world situation at that time and the poverty and backwardness of China, criticize all kinds of outdated concepts, and generously take the establishment of modern emerging industries as its own responsibility, put forward plans to seek wealth, set up modern enterprises in China, and trained a group of scientific and technological talents. Objectively, this cannot but be nationalistic. It lies in its negative effect, that is, this negative effect reflects that if China wants to realize modernization, it must reform all aspects of production relations while developing productive forces, especially the political, ideological, cultural and educational systems based on production relations, at the same time, improve the quality of the people, establish the people's independent, self-reliant and enterprising ideas, and dare to absorb all advanced foreign civilizations to serve us.
Second, the economy.
The establishment of modern new industrial and mining enterprises by the Westernization School was not accidental or unplanned. They want to learn from the west and gradually establish their own modern industrial system. First, the Westernization School set up more than a dozen enterprises such as China Merchants Bureau and Kaiping Mining Bureau in the form of "official supervision and commercial office" to consolidate the military and increase the government's fiscal revenue. Secondly, it encourages private investment in modern new enterprises in the form of "joint venture between government and business" as much as possible, and protects them in various ways. Capital advocates it. The main reason was that feudal forces were dominant at that time, folk customs were not open, and the social environment of emphasizing agriculture and restraining commerce was deeply rooted. Ordinary bureaucratic landlords, comprador and wealthy businessmen want to run large enterprises, and apply for "official supervision and business operation" or "joint venture between government and business". They kept in touch with the government more or less, thus gaining a foothold. Therefore, this form is more suitable. Without this beginning, private capital
Of course, there are also many disadvantages in the operation of "official supervision and commercial office" or "official-commercial joint venture" enterprises. For example, cronyism, feudal management and selfish interests at the expense of the public have seriously hindered the normal development of enterprises. It is precisely because of the disadvantages of official enterprise that the appeal of government-supervised commercial enterprises or joint-venture enterprises is reduced, so the voice of commercial enterprises is getting stronger and stronger, so in the 1970s, purely commercial capitalist enterprises have begun to appear. However, after the indomitable struggle of national capitalists, national capitalist enterprises were finally established and developed on the land of China. Its existence and development broke the centralization of China's feudal economy for two thousand years, and it was a sign of great social and economic changes in China.
The objective influence of Westernization Movement's introduction of western science and technology is enormous and far-reaching, at least in the following aspects:
(1) The Westernization Movement directly promoted the development of production. In industry and transportation, machines began to gradually replace manual production, which is an epoch-making change with the nature of industrial revolution, making it possible to break through the old productive forces that have remained unchanged for thousands of years.
(2) The Westernization Movement promoted the progress of science and technology. A large number of books on applied technology of natural science have been translated into Chinese, the first batch of technical and management talents in China have been trained in military and civilian enterprises, and students studying science and technology in Europe have been sent in batches. The modernization of science and technology education in China began by promoting the reform of imperial examination system, setting up new schools and cultivating new talents.
(3) In the field of ideology and culture, a number of scientific and technological teams of new intellectuals have emerged. Their philosophy of the universe was deeply influenced by the western bourgeois evolution theory, which promoted the later bourgeois reform and even the Revolution of 1911. It can be said that the Westernization Movement was the enlightenment of China's early modernization.
These are not all the objective influences of the Westernization Movement, the most important thing is the change of productivity. Although this change is partial, just started and has various defects, science and technology are the primary productive forces. The introduction of science and technology, especially natural science, during the Westernization Movement was an important link in the history of China's science and technology development, and played a vital role in China's transformation from ancient science and technology to modern science and technology.
Third, the military aspect.
The establishment of Westernization was undoubtedly a major change in the diplomatic, military and industrial modes of production in the 1960s. Ideologically, Zeng Guofan and Zuo inherited Wei Yuan's thought of "learning from foreigners" during the Opium War, and its ideological root was patriotism. Although the main purpose of Zeng Guofan and Zuo Zuowei, who presided over the Westernization Movement at that time, was to continue to maintain the rule of the Qing government and it was important to maintain "reconciliation" with foreign invaders, it was important to protect their homeland from the fall. Because of this, they hope that the Chinese empire will keep pace with the times and not lag behind the western countries. This is mainly manifested in the following two aspects.
1) started the military industry.
From 186 1 Zeng Guofan founded Anqing Ordnance Institute to 1894 Zhang Zhidong founded Gunxia Westernization School and 2 1 military enterprise in Hubei. Most of these enterprises used mechanized production at that time. Although the degree of mechanization was not high at that time, manual production was still widely used in production. Although these enterprises have strong feudalism, backwardness and conservatism in management, they are, after all, the first batch of modern enterprises in the history of China, which initiated the modernization of China and objectively promoted the development of social productive forces and the emergence of capitalist private enterprises in China. In particular, the establishment of these military enterprises has produced a large number of guns and ammunition, which has changed the backward state of Qing sabers, spears, bows and arrows and soil guns. This played a certain role in maintaining the rule of the Qing Dynasty and resisting the invasion of foreign enemies, strengthened the national defense force of the Qing Dynasty, and took a gratifying step towards the modernization of China's army.
2) Establish a new army.
While establishing military enterprises, the Westernization School also attached importance to the construction of the army, and regarded it as one of the main contents of the Westernization Movement and the purpose of military industry. In 20862, Tianjin established the foreign gun team10010.0000000001005/866, the Prime Minister's yamen was established 15000 "training", and Li Hongzhang equipped his Huai army in Shanghai. Zuo also set up a foreign gun team in Ningbo, making Huai Army and Zuo Xiang Army a new type of army. 1888, Li Hongzhang built the North Shore Navy; 1894, Fujian Navy, Nanyang Navy and Beiyang Navy were built respectively. * * * has six or seven thousand ships, and the scale is considerable. For the first time in China's military history, a new arm, the modern navy, appeared. Although the navy's equipment, military quality and military strength were far behind the west, it eventually became an important national defense force of the Qing government with the efforts of the Westernization School, which was a kind of progress at that time. Of course, the establishment of the new Lu Haijun served the rule of the Qing Dynasty, but its existence inevitably posed a certain threat to the western invaders. History clearly tells us that the Qing army achieved great success in the town, and the Qing army gave the French a heavy burden. In the Yellow Sea naval battle, Beiyang Navy, under the leadership of patriotic generals, severely damaged five Japanese warships, forcing them to withdraw from the Yellow Sea for the first time, which showed the dignity of the Chinese nation. Therefore, we are sure that the Westernization Movement has suppressed the people, and we cannot deny that it has the purpose of "self-improvement", defending the country and opposing aggression. Although 1894, the South and the North Seas were all destroyed under the domination of Li Hongzhang and others' surrender thought, we can't judge the failure of troops equipped with new weapons in the Westernization Movement in this war by this, and think that the Westernization Movement has completely failed. War is the highest form of politics and the product of irreconcilable economic interests. Military failure includes political system, government attitude, military quality, disparity between Chinese and foreign forces, economic strength, domestic power struggle and many other factors. We can't simply blame this complicated failure process on the industrial activities of the Westernization School. When analyzing any social problem, the absolute requirement of Marxist theory is to bring the problem within a certain historical range. At that time, the Westernization School used the slogan of "self-improvement" in the Westernization Movement to build an armed army of guns and warships. Its main purpose is to modernize China's army in order to compete with western invaders and protect itself from defeat. This is worthy of recognition.
Fourth, the ideological aspect.
1, the westernization movement takes "Chinese style and western use" as the guiding ideology. /kloc-In China society in the late 9th century, the national bourgeoisie has not yet entered the political arena, especially in the 1960s when "Chinese and Western styles" appeared, and China just broke its closed state. When it was shocked by an open world, it took the first step of modernization with "Chinese style and western use". So there was the legalization of "Western learning", 800 industrial and mining enterprises, three naval fleets, the large-scale introduction of modern advanced technology brought by China's 30-year westernization practice, and even the emergence and development of Chinese national capitalism and the introduction of advanced western political culture. China's modernization from the "Westernization" did have subjective class limitations and objective historical limitations, but it was a wise move to conform to historical development. It was the first and only possible choice made by ancient China in the face of the "unchanged situation for thousands of years". The Westernization Movement has already shown its historical value when it became the real beginning of China's modernization.
2. The rise of modernization thought.
With the deepening of Westernization Movement and the initial development of capitalism, the subconscious thoughts of modernization gradually emerged.
1) the transformation from "reform and self-improvement" to "seeking wealth"
After the two Opium Wars, China lost to the West. How to change this situation, westernization theorists put forward the idea of "self-improvement through reform". This thought of "self-improvement through reform" originated from the continuation and extension of Wei Yuan's patriotic thought of "learning from foreigners", and it is also a counter-judgment to the idea of "no way remains unchanged" for thousands of years. With the deepening of the Westernization Movement, "self-improvement"
2) Starting from the thought of "saving the country through industry and commerce", develop the transformation of capitalist thought.
With the emergence and start of modern national capitalist industry and commerce in China, the corresponding idea of "valuing business" was gradually formed and developed greatly in the Westernization Movement. Those ideas of the Westernization School were undoubtedly advanced at that time, but they could not be put into practice at that time and became empty talk. But they played an inspiring role in the feudal atmosphere. During the Westernization Movement, these ideas gradually formed and developed, indicating that China was required to modernize.
Verb (abbreviation of verb) cultural aspect
1, education
1) Cultivate modern talents
The establishment of Westernization requires talents who are familiar with Westernization, but the traditional old-fashioned educational content can no longer meet the needs of Westernization. Therefore, establishing new educational undertakings, learning new knowledge and cultivating new talents have become important measures of the Westernization Movement.
(1) Establish a new school.
From the establishment of Beijing Wentong Museum in 1862 to the establishment of Yantai Naval Academy in 1894, Westernization Academy has established 24 new schools. These schools mainly train translators, engineers, weapons, ship drivers, telegraph and communication, mining, military doctors and other talents who serve the Westernization Movement. Although these schools are small in scale and have few students, they have broken the old education and imperial examination system after all.
② sending international students
In order to study advanced science and technology in the west more comprehensively and systematically, Westernization School also sent overseas students to the west directly. Since 1872, the Westernization School has sent seven groups of overseas students to the United States, Britain, France and other countries on a large scale, with a total number of 20 1, including Zhan Tianyou, who will become an engineer in the future, and Yan Fu, a famous scholar. On the one hand, they systematically studied the advanced scientific and technological knowledge in the west, on the other hand, they accepted this knowledge to some extent.
Running schools and sending overseas students, on the one hand, trained a large number of new talents with knowledge of western learning for Westernization, on the other hand, greatly promoted the modernization of education in China and prepared preliminary cultural conditions for the modernization of China society.
2. The publication of the translated works has promoted the widespread spread of western learning in China, and expanded the ideological exchange and integration between Chinese and Western cultures. While vigorously running schools and promoting learning, the Westernization School fully realized the importance of cultural communication, and began to publish newspapers and periodicals, set up publishing institutions, and translated a large number of western works.
In addition to translating a large number of western works, there were a large number of newspapers and some famous publishing institutions at that time. Among the modern publishing institutions in China, the Commercial Press and Zhonghua Book Company have the longest history and the greatest influence. The Commercial Press 1897 was founded in Shanghai and published a large number of influential books. Zhonghua Book Company was founded in 19 12. Textbooks and children's books are
The translation and publication of a large number of western works and the emergence of newspapers and publishing institutions in modern China have broken the barriers between Chinese and western cultures and the ice of traditional culture, and greatly promoted the exchange and integration of Chinese and western cultures.
In a word, the Westernization Movement in just 35 years not only brought bitterness and pain to people, but also had a far-reaching and positive impact on China culture. China people took this opportunity to get in touch with the West and learn from it, thus promoting the modernization of China. It can be said that the Westernization Movement is an important stage in the historical development of China, and its positive influence on culture and education can be said to be an indispensable page in the cultural history of China.
Conclusion of intransitive verbs
To sum up, the Westernization Movement, which took place in the 1960s and 1990s 19, failed to achieve its expected goal: to make China rich and strong in a short time, but it opened the curtain of modern industry in China and made China embark on the road of modern industrialization. Although the troops equipped with foreign guns failed to stop the invasion of foreign invaders, they also dealt a heavy blow to the invaders. Although the civilian industry it founded failed to make China rich, the capitalist mode of production it led to began to take root in China. Under its influence and promotion, Chinese national capitalism came into being and developed. The historical role and contribution of Westernization School in setting up modern enterprises can not be obliterated or erased by any narrow democratic criticism or unscientific accusation beyond the historical stage. Although Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and other founders of the Westernization Movement exterminated the people and betrayed the country for glory, we can't deny the objective influence of their industrial activities and thoughts on modern China. Although the purpose and motivation of the Westernization School are not as revolutionary and intense as those of the later reformers and the League, their series of Westernization activities are an unprecedented betrayal of the values of feudal society for thousands of years, and they are "seeking righteousness" rather than "respecting righteousness", "emphasizing equipment" rather than "emphasizing morality", which runs counter to the routines of their ancestors. Become "the beginning of China's industrial revolution". It introduced western machines and enterprise management, and became "the beginning of China's industrial revolution". It introduced capitalism, science and technology and moral values, opened new schools in China, trained new talents, sent overseas students to serve the Westernization Movement, and used the ideas and interests of western capitalism to open and influence China people who had been under the shadow of feudal autocracy for thousands of years. These factors, which were born the bane of feudalism, lurked in China and eventually surged, leading to the Reform Movement of 1898 and the Revolution of 1911, the collapse of the Qing government and the establishment of the bourgeois regime. Although the Westernization Movement didn't make China approach the road of modernization soon, the spirit originated from the Westernization Movement led the advanced China people to further explore the road of modernization in China.