Second, China's ancient military thought.
Third, China's modern military thought.
Fourthly, China's contemporary military thought.
Third, China's modern military thought.
China's modern military thought refers to the military thought formed and developed from 1840 to 1949 in China's semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. It not only has the basis of China's ancient military thought, but also has the color of western bourgeois military thought.
(A) the development process
China's modern military thought was gradually formed after the Opium War.
/kloc-the opium war broke out in 0/840, which exposed the serious weakness of military thought in Qing dynasty. With foreign powers' repeated wars of aggression against China and the gradual deepening of aggression, China's traditional military thoughts were increasingly impacted and challenged by the western bourgeois military thoughts, and there was a historical evolution of trade-off or mutual integration, which led to the emergence and development of China's modern military thoughts. At the same time, it also provided some conditions for the emergence and development of China's proletarian military thought.
1, germination period (1840- 1860)
During this period, the first and second Opium Wars and the peasant war of Taiping Heavenly Kingdom were carried out.
/kloc-In the 1940s of 0/9, when warships of western powers broke into Haikou, China with cannons and evil opium ships, officers and men of the Qing army armed with broadswords, shields and rough muskets suddenly found that the military superiority that their ancestors were proud of no longer existed, and which ferocious and cunning foreign invader refused to engage in open hand-to-hand combat with tactics familiar to China people, instead of bombarding with powerful foreign guns or sending small troops to land for attack. This is incredible for the Qing army, which is used to dense phalanx formation and pays attention to frontline fortification or fort protection.
People of insight, represented by Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan, initially realized the idea of "building a strong ship and benefiting from artillery" of western powers, and put forward the slogan of "learning from foreigners to control foreigners", which marked the beginning of the transformation of traditional military thinking and had an important impact on the emergence and development of modern military thinking.
The most obvious change is to break through the ideological shackles of the rulers of the Qing Dynasty, buy a batch of artillery from abroad to equip the army, and improve the combat effectiveness of the army.
2. Local variation period (186 1- 1894)
During this period, the Qing army recovered the Xinjiang War, the Sino-French War and the Sino-Japanese Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895.
After the Second Opium War, for the dual purpose of suppressing peasant uprising and resisting foreign invasion, the rulers inherited the idea of "learning from foreigners to control foreigners" and launched the "self-improvement" movement (known as the "Westernization Movement" in history). Their policy is "self-improvement depends on training, and training first makes weapons." First of all, they established a modern military industry and copied western-style guns and warships, which provided material conditions for the emergence of new military ideas. With the increasingly serious border crisis, the Qing dynasty began to buy ships from the west and stepped up preparations for coastal defense. 1888, Beiyang navy was formally established. And sent students to study abroad, founded a military school with foreigners as instructors, and absorbed and promoted modern bourgeois military thoughts from then on.
Constrained by the general guiding ideology of "taking middle school as the body and western learning as the application", the thought of building and managing the army obviously lags behind the needs of the development of the times. In running the army, it still failed to break away from the original system of the Qing army. The operational guiding ideology seriously lags behind the development of weapons and equipment, and most of them simply defend against the invasion of western powers.
3. Comprehensive reform period (1895-1911)
During this period, the Qing army fought against the invasion of Eight-Nation Alliance and the Revolution of 1911. Subsequently, China fell into a period of constant civil war and warlord scuffle.
After China was defeated in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, he advocated the establishment and practice of a new army in an all-round way. The Qing government also saw Japan's "winning by western methods" in the war of aggression against China, and decided to reform the military system of the army and train the new army according to western methods. At this time, the new army was composed of infantry, horses, artillery and engineering teams, all equipped with new guns and trained in German codes. This was a decisive step in the late Qing Dynasty from the old battalion system to a synthetic army dominated by infantry, supplemented by riding, artillery and engineering teams.
1900, the Qing army failed in the war against Eight-Nation Alliance's invasion, which forced the Qing government to further change its political and military system, and instead trained a new army based on the establishment of the Japanese army, and established the idea of learning from foreign advanced military systems in an all-round way, marking that the military system of the Qing dynasty officially entered the track of modernization. Officially announced the abolition of Wu Tong, determined to set up schools throughout the country, and established a relatively complete military education system consisting of army primary schools, middle schools, universities and specialized military technical schools.
During the overall reform of the Qing army, a number of military art works were translated and compiled, and the western bourgeois war theory, military system and strategy began to spread in China.
During this period, the study of western content was still focused on the military. However, the operation style and operation ideas have obviously changed compared with before. The role of the headquarters has been improved, and attention has been paid to using modern transportation and communication tools to maneuver troops and improve command efficiency. Due to the mechanical application of foreign military practices, the combat style is biased towards positional warfare.
4. Further development period (19 12- 1949)
During this period, there were wars of seeking Yuan, protecting the country, protecting the law and the Northern Expedition. There are still ten years of civil war, eight years of anti-Japanese war and three years of liberation war.
With the help of * * * Production International and China * * * Production Party, Sun Yat-sen put forward the principle of "ruling the army by the party", which combined the army with the people and became the power of the masses. He also established the system of party representatives and political work in the army, and educated officers and men with the Three People's Principles, which brought the army building thought to a new level.
1927 The Nanjing National Government was established, and Chiang Kai-shek Group, representing the interests of the big bourgeoisie, began to rectify and build the army in line with the guiding ideology of unifying military power and reforming the military system. After defeating the local separatist forces one by one, we began to reform the military system, establish military command institutions, update weapons and equipment, and improve the logistics supply system; Establish special forces such as armored forces, develop the air force, strengthen the navy, and form a joint military system of the three armed forces; In line with the guiding ideology of "fighting is fighting", various military schools and officers' training groups have been held to train officers and professionals, which has pushed the modernization and regularization of China's army to a new height.
(II) Main contents
1, military thought in late Qing dynasty
After the defeat of the Opium War, many people of insight explored ways to save the nation from extinction with new ways of thinking. Nothing is more urgent than military needs.
Strategically, the Opium War broke the barrier of "Golden Lock and Copper Pass" in Qing Dynasty, and brought an unprecedented deep national crisis of "beggar-thy-neighbor, eyeing up" to China. It is under this background that the patriotic military thoughts of Lin Zexu and others germinated. Immersed in the smoke of the Opium War, Lin Zexu's first consideration was how to resist the British and defend the coast of China. He put forward the idea of "learning from foreigners to control foreigners", changed the bad habit of being self-centered and complacent in the past, actively learned about the western world and learned advanced foreign military science and technology, in an attempt to defeat opponents by learning advanced western things. According to the characteristics that the enemy is superior to us, he formulated the strategic defense thought of "defending as the battle and waiting for the merits". He didn't fight the enemy in the ocean, but destroyed the enemy in Haikou or on land. It emphasized mobilizing the people and relying on Ding Yong, a non-governmental force, to defend coastal defense, which opened the national anti-aggression war in modern China.
Later, as the war continued, the weapons and equipment of the army in the late Qing Dynasty also improved. The modernization of military equipment inevitably requires new military art and military thought. However, the rulers at that time only emphasized military technology and tactics, ignoring the world's advanced military art and military thought, and did not organize senior generals to learn and understand western military art and military thought and master operational knowledge under modern conditions. Therefore, although the weapons and ships are powerful, the generals who lack profound academic and military ideas cling to the old tactics of "taking the Lord as the guest", "defending as the war" and "static braking" in the past, and finally become passive defense of passive beating, which can not meet the needs of modern anti-aggression war at all. The Qing army paid a heavy price for this.
Jianjun: The Opium War fully exposed the incompetence of the Qing army. During the Taiping Rebellion, more than 500,000 Qing troops were wiped out. In order to change this situation, the Qing government carried out some reforms in the army, such as hiring foreign military instructors, buying foreign guns, and promoting western codes of conduct. However, due to the disadvantages of the Qing army, the reform achieved little, especially the military organizational system remained in the old form, and there was no substantial change. Although this superficial partial "Westernization" made ideological preparations for the later military modernization and created certain conditions, it soon hit a wall in practice.
During the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the Qing army was vulnerable, and the Beiyang Navy was wiped out. As a result, the new army basically imitated Germany, which can be said to be completely westernized. Later, he hired Japanese instructors to compile and practice according to the Japanese military system. Taking this as a starting point, China's army has taken the first step towards comprehensive modernization.
Another notable sign of China's military modernization is the renewal of weapons and equipment. After the Qing army entered the Central Plains, it mainly used riding and shooting, and basically used knives, spears, bows and arrows. It was dominated by cold weapons for a long time. After the Opium War, foreign advanced weapons were introduced into China, and domestic arsenals began to copy some new weapons. Firearms began to replace cold weapons and gradually became a part of the Qing army's weapons and equipment. After 65438+60 in 2009, China's backward tubular firearms were replaced by tubular rifles and long and short blasting guns. After 1980s, afterloading guns, including Maxim heavy machine guns and light and heavy mortars, began to be imported into China, and domestic factories also copied them. 19 10 was introduced into the aircraft for the first time. During this period, the growth and decline of cold and hot weapons were very fast, but China's army was still in a state of cold and hot weapons, including broadsword spears and foreign guns.
National Defense Thought: To add luster to China's modern military thought, we must first carry forward the national defense thought that was in its heyday at that time. 19 In the mid-1970s, there was an argument about defense and coastal defense between the ruling classes of the Qing Dynasty. The "fortress defense theory" advocates temporarily giving up coastal defense and focusing on fortress defense to deal with Russia and recover Xinjiang. The "theory of coastal defense" holds that "China's current strength is not as good as that of the western regions" and "Xinjiang is no longer, and its vitality is not hurt; If you don't protect the sea, the great pain in your abdomen will become more and more prickly. Therefore, we advocate giving up Xinjiang temporarily and giving priority to coastal defense. Finally, in view of the urgent situation in the northwest, the ambitious czarist Russia embezzled our country, and the severe situation that western powers frequently invaded the eastern coastal areas of our country, the Qing rulers advocated "paying equal attention to the eastern coastal defense and the western defense." On the one hand, under the guidance of the strategy of paying equal attention to Xinjiang, sending troops to Xinjiang wiped out the reactionary regime that ruled Xinjiang 13 years, and wrote a glorious page in the modern history of China to defend the sacred territorial integrity of the motherland. On the other hand, it is committed to the construction of the navy. This not only adds new content to China's modern military thought, but more importantly, as a big country bordering on the sea, the sad situation caused by the lack and contempt of the concept of sea power has finally been reflected.
2. Military thoughts in the Republic of China.
Before and after the Revolution of 1911, history pushed the bourgeoisie in China to the front. The emerging bourgeoisie has made outstanding contributions to the development of China's modern military thought, but it has also taken some detours. Mainly in three aspects:
The first is the theory of army building. As early as 1906, Sun Yat-sen put forward the idea of "building a revolutionary army", but it was not realized because of the objective environment of secret struggle at that time. After repeated armed uprisings and wars against warlords, Sun Yat-sen began to really understand what kind of armed forces should be established and how to establish them. 1924 65438+ 10, with the help of the Soviet Union and China's * * * production party, Sun Yat-sen founded the Army Military Academy in Huangpu Island. "take the students of our school as the foundation" and "create a revolutionary army to save the nation and survive". Sun Yat-sen asked this revolutionary new army to "struggle and sacrifice for the Three People's Principles". To this end, he sincerely learned from the experience of the Soviet Red Army, established a party representative system, and established a political work system to make the army look brand-new. Unfortunately, Sun Yat-sen's thought of building the army died as soon as he put it into practice. But the legacy he left behind is undoubtedly an extremely valuable asset in the development history of China's modern military thought.
At the turn of spring and summer from 65438 to 0927, the Great Revolution failed. In the fierce class struggle and ethnic conflicts in the next 22 years, two completely different armies emerged and formed: the Kuomintang army headed by Chiang Kai-shek and the people's army led by the China Producers' Party. The two armies have gone through different stages of development. Broadly speaking, the modernization of the army at this stage should also include the development process of the people's army. This chapter focuses on the modernization of the Kuomintang army. In the modernization of the Kuomintang army, the first task is to concentrate the army, that is, to rectify the bloated army with as many as 2 million people, and to unify military orders as the top priority. To define the functions of the supreme command organ of the country's army, navy and air force, and decide to reduce and merge the armed forces. Announce a new conscription system, set up various schools, buy a large number of advanced weapons from the west, and reform training plans. Examining and approving the army in units of three divisions. In terms of naval and air force construction, before the Anti-Japanese War, the navy had more than 20 large and small ships/KLOC-0, with a total tonnage of 6,280 tons. Air force construction started late. The Kuomintang Air Force has 9 brigades, 5 squadrons directly under it and 4 transport teams. It has 3 14 fighters, more than 300 transport planes and trainers, more than 3,000 pilots and 262 airports. In War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, the Kuomintang troops received a batch of foreign military assistance, and the combat troops were reorganized and the degree of modernization was improved. After the war, with the support of the United States, the Kuomintang rulers frantically expanded their troops to prepare for war, further strengthened military dictatorship, and greatly accelerated the pace of military modernization. At the same time, instill in officers and men the idea of absolute obedience to orders and "loyalty to leaders" and strengthen ideological control over the army; Even set up a secret service organization to monitor the words and deeds of officers and soldiers and implement terrorist rule. However, only three years later, this huge army of 4.3 million people with American equipment, together with its regime, was swept into the garbage dump of history.
The second is the principle of strategy and tactics. In the war led by Sun Yat-sen, new strategic and tactical principles were created. In order to achieve the strategic goal, according to the complicated and changeable situation of the enemy and ourselves, we should adopt the policy of "making a quick decision and defeating the enemy at one stroke" and quickly catch the enemy off guard; When attacking, we use limited forces to carry out coordinated operations and adopt various forms of operations such as main attack, auxiliary attack and feint attack. In defense, there are also concentrated troops, and when the enemy is scattered and there is a gap, they will break it separately. Then, the operational policy of combining military strikes with political disintegration, concentrating superior forces and breaking them one by one was formulated.
1927 after the establishment of the Nanjing Kuomintang government, Chiang Kai-shek Group formulated the reactionary idea of "settling abroad first". In the face of Japan's compromise, the "encirclement and suppression" of the Red Army was stepped up, which made the national disaster unprecedented. After the outbreak of War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, the strategy of "exchanging space for time" was adopted to contain a considerable number of Japanese troops in the frontal battlefield. However, due to the one-sided anti-Japanese war line, the strength of the national anti-Japanese war has been weakened. Especially in the early days of the Anti-Japanese War, the defensive policy based on positional warfare was implemented, which led to the destruction of a large area of land, heavy losses to the army and little consumption by the enemy. In the middle and late period, the policy of passive resistance to Japan, active opposition to * * * and preservation of strength will be implemented. The troops leading to the frontal battlefield only know how to defend their positions and respond passively, which eventually leads to strategic rout.
The third is the thought of national defense construction. Sun Yat-sen and others gradually realized the importance of national defense construction from the reality of national peril and their own struggle. In the second year of the Revolution of 1911, Sun Yat-sen began to write the outline of industrial plan and national defense plan. Industrial planning can be said to be the basic project of Sun Yat-sen's deployment of national defense construction. In the Outline of National Defense Plan, Sun Yat-sen drew up 62 outlines, including the development of the armed forces, and outlined his overall plan for national defense construction. A major feature of Sun Yat-sen's national defense thought is that he attaches importance to both national defense and people's livelihood. "Qiang Bing has plenty of food and clothing, and the war is in chaos" is the embodiment of Sun Yat-sen's national defense thought. Sun Yat-sen's thought of national defense construction is mainly embodied in six aspects:
(1) "Dividing military regions". In view of the serious tendency of warlordism in the late Qing Dynasty, local military commanders supported their troops with self-respect after the Revolution of 1911, and the central government had no right to mobilize and command the troops of various provinces, so Sun Yat-sen advocated eliminating the disadvantages of the military system and establishing a unified military command system throughout the country. The main idea is to divide the whole country into several military regions in addition to re-dividing the national administrative regions, and each military region can deal with the army independently, so that we can concentrate on armament construction, separate military and political affairs, and avoid excessive concentration of power.
(2) "unified military system." He personally drafted the infantry establishment of the revolutionary army, demanding that peacetime training must be carried out according to the establishment, which is conducive to wartime command.
(3) Implement the policy of "elite soldiers". In view of the complexity of the army and the situation of a bandit family in the early Republic of China, Sun Yat-sen advocated reorganizing the existing army and improving its quality. Specific measures: lay off those who are not diligent in training and are old, weak and useless, leaving "the strong are good at training and making them into an army"; Implement the "engineer" policy and provide agricultural and vocational education to junior officers and soldiers in the army, so that soldiers will have employment opportunities when they retire from active service and will not become stragglers; Change the conscription system into the conscription system, making it compulsory for citizens to serve as soldiers for two years, so that every citizen can enjoy the rights of the country and fulfill his obligations for the country.
(4) Conduct "military education". Popularize military education in schools all over the country, especially in universities and middle schools, so as to expand the army in wartime.
(5) "expanding the arsenal". First of all, we should increase weapons production, supply sufficient weapons to the army, and order all kinds of new weapons from abroad, such as submarines, planes and tanks. "In order to enrich the demand for our elite weapons and imitation weapons."
(6) Advocating the study of military science. Sun Yat-sen believed that although China had rich military theories in ancient times, its modern military science was too backward, and because of its long-term emphasis on literature over martial arts and weak folk customs, it could not meet the needs of modern international wars. Therefore, he argued that "the failure of China's war against Japan and France in the pre-Qin period was due to the lack of military knowledge" and that "military science is the most important, so there are not many soldiers. If it can be completely organized and fully prepared, one million people can exceed three million. " He called on the military community to "strive for strength and study military science, so that 40 million compatriots will have the spirit of martial arts and the Republic of China will be rich in martial arts."
(3) Basic characteristics
China completed the transformation from traditional military thought to modern military thought in more than 100 years, and its development speed far exceeded the historical process that went through thousands of years ago. But it was carried out in the special social environment of China. Due to the obstruction and attack of feudal forces and imperialist aggression forces in China, the modernization of China's military thought was seriously affected, and it was deeply branded as a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society.
However, the development of China's modern military thought was obviously passive. Often after being defeated by foreign enemies, they are forced to change course, abandon some old things and stumble forward.
After the Opium War, great changes have taken place in the internal economic structure of China society. On the one hand, the feudal self-sufficient natural economy in a solidified and closed state was destroyed; On the other hand, the very weak Chinese national capitalism has been catalyzed and promoted. However, it is a well-known fact that old China, which was in a semi-colonial and semi-feudal position, had a fragile economic foundation and a low production level, not to mention a certain basic national defense industrial system. The backwardness of China society determines that China's modern military thought is not rooted in the natural development of his own body, but mainly imitates Europe and America.
In the process of drawing lessons from European and American bourgeois military thoughts, there is a tendency to copy them, eat them alive and ignore China's fine traditions. For example, when the new army began to compile and practice in the late Qing Dynasty, it emphasized that "all training regulations should be handled in accordance with western law" and "all marching equipment should be purchased and prepared in accordance with western law". In the process of modernization of military thought, the Nanjing National Government changed from blind inferiority to blind worship, thinking that foreign military technology and equipment were all good, and China people were nothing like foreigners. It regards unconditional learning of all foreign military technologies as a shortcut to military reform. In fact, the army building of any country is closely related to its political nature, economic foundation, moral norms and national cultural quality. It is simply not feasible to try to unconditionally copy and graft all the methods applicable to foreign troops to the army of a semi-colonial and semi-feudal country. What's more, western powers never want to see an independent, prosperous and powerful China established through military modernization. We advocate learning from foreign advanced experience, but we can't completely abandon China and seek foreign countries. If we deviate from the national conditions and blindly westernize, it will only be the result of failing to learn foreign things and losing China's excellent traditions. There is also a tendency to stick to feudal patriarchal ideology and refuse to accept the essence of the times. Since ancient times, the Chinese nation has been famous for its civilization and wisdom. But it is undeniable that traditional culture has also left behind dross. The modernization process of military thought, which evolved with the internal metabolism of China society, is full of struggles between advanced and backward, right and wrong, new and decadent forces. In fact, from the time when the world's advanced military system and science and technology were transplanted and sprouted in China's army, traditional ideas and backward consciousness stubbornly resisted them. All these have seriously hindered the modernization of China's army and the healthy development of China's modern military thought. The historical process of China's modernization of military thought proves by irrefutable facts that the modernization of military thought must be combined with advanced classes and advanced thoughts. Only when military thoughts represent the interests of the people and conform to the development trend of the times can they have vitality.
(4) Status and role
1 is a major breakthrough in China's ancient military thought.
China's modern military thought has made great progress in more than one hundred years, which is a major breakthrough to China's ancient military thought. As a part of the emerging military thought at that time, it embodies the innovative spirit representing the direction of the times and has innovative understanding in many fields such as military system, operational methods and operational command.
2. It occupies an important position in the development history of China's military thought.
During the hundred years from 1840 to 1949, China society has undergone earth-shaking changes, especially in the field of military thought. During this period, China's military thought also experienced a special period of development. For more than 2,000 years, China's traditional military thought collided with western military thought for the first time, forming China's modern military thought, which is the inheritance and development of China's ancient military thought. It was also from this time that China's military thought began a rational and dynamic scientific exploration under the joint action of the tide of social change and western military thought.
3. It laid a foundation for the development of China's contemporary military thought.
China's modern military thought went out of the traditional framework of China's ancient military thought and began to draw lessons from the advanced western military theory, which opened a window to the world for the development of China's military thought. Many of its contents reflect the laws of national defense and army building at that time and the laws of modern warfare to a certain extent. Therefore, it became a useful knowledge source of China's contemporary military thought, especially Mao Zedong's military thought, and laid the foundation for the emergence and development of China's contemporary military thought.