Meiji Restoration was a political revolution in Japanese history. It overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate, returned the main government to the emperor, carried out great political, economic and social reforms, and promoted Japan's modernization and westernization. The main leaders of Meiji Restoration were some young warriors who tried to build a country that could keep pace with the West under the slogan of "Rich Qiang Bing". 187 1 year, abolish feudal counties and eliminate all feudal regimes. In the same year, a new standing army was established. 1873 implemented the national compulsory military service system and reformed the agricultural tax. In addition, the currency was unified. In the mid-1970s of 19, these reforms were opposed by two sides: on the one hand, frustrated soldiers rallied farmers who were dissatisfied with agricultural policies to revolt many times; On the other hand, civil rights theorists influenced by western liberalism demand constitutionalism and parliament, and everything is decided by public opinion. Under the pressure of all parties, the Meiji government implemented the cabinet system in 1885, and began to formulate the constitution the following year. 1889 formally promulgated the constitution, 1890 convened the first parliament. At the same time of political reform, economic and social reforms are also going on. The main goal of Meiji government is to realize industrialization. Military industry and transportation have made great progress. The first railway was built in 1872 and the new bank was established in 1882. In order to meet the needs of modernization, a large number of western science and technology were introduced. By the beginning of the 20th century, the goal of Meiji Restoration had been basically accomplished, and Japan was advancing on the road of modernization as an industrial country.
Germany went to capitalism through dynasty war.
1848 After the failure of the European Revolution, the German monarch strengthened his political reactionary rule. but
However, the feudal ruling class has been unable to completely restore the old order before the revolution. Except Austria restored the monarch.
In addition to autocracy, most countries have retained the constitutional monarchy established during the revolutionary period, allowing the bourgeoisie to have a certain
Some political freedoms and the right to participate in parliament.
1850 In May, the King of Prussia promulgated the King James Constitution, which clarified the parliamentary system. congress
Divided into two houses. The house of lords is composed of dignitaries appointed by the king, and the house of representatives is elected at three levels according to property qualifications.
The emergence of the electoral system ensured the absolute superiority of Yong Ke (aristocratic landlord) and the big bourgeoisie in the parliament.
Congress has the right to vote on bills and approve budgets, but the king has administrative and military power.
The veto over the legislation of Congress. Cabinet ministers are not responsible to parliament, but to the king. Prussia gradually
From feudal monarchy to yongke bourgeois monarchy.
19 After the 1950s, Germany's capitalist economy developed rapidly. From 1850
By 1870, its total industrial output value has more than doubled, and the output of heavy industry sector has doubled every 10 year.
For example, the output of coal increased from 7 million tons in 1850 to 34 million tons in 1870, while the output of iron increased from 200,000 tons.
Tonnage soared to 6.5438+0.4 million tons. In addition, great progress has been made in machine building and railway construction. exist
Driven by the development of industry and transportation, business and credit undertakings are also developing. same
During this period, capitalist relations in agriculture also developed greatly, mainly through the landlord economy.
This was achieved through the transformation of the socialist economy, and the Yongke landlord has gradually become a bourgeoisie.
With the rapid development of German capitalism, feudalism, a serious obstacle on the road of development, has been eliminated.
The demand for separatism is stronger, and the issue of reunification is once again put on the agenda. Germany already existed at that time.
There are two possibilities to solve the task of national reunification, namely, two ways. One was written by Marx,
Engels put forward that the people, under the leadership of the proletariat, used revolutionary means to destroy the feudal landlord class.
Economic and political forces, the elimination of feudal separatism, the establishment of a unified German Democratic Republic. This is a symbol.
A road that conforms to the fundamental interests of the German working people. The other is led by Prussia or Austria, through
Top-down dynasty war: the way to unify Germany.
Although the German bourgeoisie longed for reunification, it dared not launch a revolution to accomplish this historical task.
Affairs, they are afraid that the participation of the proletariat in the revolution will pose a greater threat to themselves, but they expect peace.
Get what you want without bloodshed.
Prussia and the northern bourgeoisie advocate Prussian leadership, exclude Austria and establish unity.
The German Empire. They formed the so-called "national alliance" and advocated the "small German road". And Dior
Li and the southern States advocated the establishment of a unified monarchy, including Austria, led by Austria.
1The 1950s and 1960s were a period of fierce struggle between the two unification roads in Germany. Which one is it?
The victory of the road mainly depends on the contrast of German class power at that time.
At the end of 1950s, due to the development of German capitalist economy and the promotion of Italian national liberation movement.
Move, the German bourgeois national movement has a new climax. Prussia won the hegemony war between Prussia and Austria
1860, the government proposed a military reform plan to the parliament. Expand the army and increase military spending. 186 1 year, the bourgeoisie established the progressive party and called for.
The requirement of opening the all-German parliament to achieve reunification. In the newly elected parliament, the Progressive Party holds the majority. I didn't.
Decide on the military budget. In order to attack the bourgeoisie, 1862, William I appointed Bismarck as the government.
Prime minister and foreign minister.
Bismarck is a typical bourgeois Yong Ke (aristocratic landlord). 18 15 was born in Apollo.
The ancestral home of Xuesihaosen Manor in Altemark, Landenburg, has been passed down from generation to generation by Juncker family. When I was 2 years old, I followed my family.
Moved to the Knipahoff estate in Pomerania. As far as their wealth and social status are concerned, Bismarck family
The family is not first-rate, but he has deeply branded Yong Ke's bossy and violent style.
During his college years, he was educated and influenced by the bourgeoisie. 1839, he gave up standby.
As a civil servant, he returned to his hometown to run an agricultural manor. Bismarck changed the way of business in the past, on the manor.
Carry out deep ploughing, improve farm tools and crop rotation, and hire long-term workers to farm, but the whole manor is the capital owner.
It is semantic in nature. Its products go beyond the local scope, but are integrated with foreign markets, involving value.
In the economic vortex. Therefore, by the early 1950s of 19, Bismarck knew the capital owner.
It's just the benefit and significance of economic development. If we don't change its operation mode, the Yongke class will
Completely bankrupt and abandoned by the development of history.
The change of economic status also determines the change of Bismarck's political status. The whole19th century
In the 1940s, Bismarck was a stubborn conservative. 1847 He is a member of the Prussian Federation.
Political actions and opinions are aimed at safeguarding Yong Ke's class interests. 1848 during the great revolution, in pru
In parliament, Bismarck publicly declared: "I am Yong Ke, and I must overwhelm the revolution!" " "He used to
Suggest to the king to suppress the revolution by force. His political views are pro-Russian, pro-Olympic and pro-French; The ones who have been
Guarantee the forces of Germany's separatist regime. After 185 1 year, Bismarck's political attitude changed obviously.
Change. Bismarck thought: 1848 revolution failed, but it was only an extension.
The trend is unstoppable.
The establishment of a unified Germany under Prussia is Bismarck's unswerving belief. To this end, he from
A pro-Austrian faction turned into a fierce anti-Austrian faction, because only Austria was Prussia's struggle for German reunification.
The main opponents and obstacles of leadership. Bismarck 1859 was appointed as the ambassador to Russia, and 186 1 was reassigned.
During his tenure as ambassador to France, he fully realized the will and conspiracy of Russian and French rulers: a unified Germany.
Strong neighbors will be bad for them, so as Germany's east and west neighbors, they will not sit idly by and watch Germany reunify.
First, measures will be taken to stop this process. Through these, Bismarck thought Prussia should be unified.
Germany must resort to force. So he supported William.
/kloc-in the autumn of 0/858, Prince William of Prussia replaced his insane brother Philip in the name of Regent.
Terry William IV gained the power to rule the country.
1860, Prince Regent William gained a military advantage in the struggle for German hegemony and was strengthened.
Domestic forces, and authorized the secretary of the army, General Ron, to start military reform. General Ron wants
Seek to increase military spending and change the two-year service system to a three-year service system. On this issue, William and Parliament produced spears.
Shield. This has caused a "constitutional dispute" that lasted for four years.
Bismarck immediately implemented the "iron and blood policy" after taking office as prime minister. He publicly announced in parliament: "Germany
Will you respect Prussia, not its liberalism, but its strength? The main problems at present
The solution to the problem does not depend on words and majority decisions? But by iron and blood. "He ignored parliament.
Oppose, reform the army and expand the army to prepare for war. He saw through the bourgeoisie's fear of the masses and its arrogance.
When the parliament asked Bismarck to step down, he replied, "We are not Britain.
Our minister is the king's slave, not yours. After the "iron speech" came out,
Both the ruling and opposition parties were shocked, and the timid William I was also afraid, but Bismarck soon became the honor of an officer.
After winning William I's trust and success, William I gave up any idea of removing Bismarck, and Bismarck began to work unscrupulously. In order to achieve under the leadership of Prussia
After the reunification of Germany, Bismarck actively carried out diplomatic activities.
1863 On August 2nd, William I met with the Austrian emperor Franz Josef in Gaste.
At that time, Joseph invited him to attend the "Prince's Meeting" hosted by him in Frankfurt.
Discussion ",and will mainly discuss Austria's plan to reform the German Federation. William hesitated,
On the other hand, Bismarck realized that once the votes of Austria and South Germany were added together, Prussia would inevitably be defeated.
Lost its leading position in German politics in the parliament, and therefore resolutely opposed it, because if the "princes' meeting",
Without Prussia's participation, it is impossible to pass the plan to reform the German Federation. In Bismarck's sword
Yes, William I didn't attend the "prince meeting" attended by 30 princes in the end, but the fact is.
Prove that this is correct.
The international environment at that time was very favorable to Prussia: after the Crimean War, the relationship between Russia and Austria deteriorated;
Since 1859, the conflict between France and Austria has deepened day by day. And Britain and France are Crimean.
After the war, friction began to appear in the Near East? At this time, European powers were fighting in Crimea.
The result of the situation is that Britain, France and Russia cannot act together, while Austria is basically isolated in Europe, so
Bismarck took advantage of this great opportunity to display his diplomatic skills and win the war vertically and horizontally. He threatened Austria.
The policy of induction and combination; For Russia, we try our best to maintain its "friendly neutrality"; Trying to delay France's rights
Prussian attack; As close to England as possible. So as to be unified through three dynastic wars.
Germany.
/kloc-in the 1960s of 0/9, the conditions for Prussia to unify Germany became increasingly mature. At this time, Prussia's classic works
Economic development ranks first among German states. 1853 After the resumption of the customs union, the small German region
The economy has been integrated with Prussia. Its economic advantages laid the foundation for its political unity.
1864, Bismarck launched a war against Denmark. Between Denmark and the Elbe River is the Kingdom of Denmark.
Two occupied principalities: Schwich and Holstein. The residents of Holstein are basically Germans.
People, 18 15 joined the german confederation. Schwich in the south is German and Danish in the north.
Danish nationalists tried to annex the two principalities. 1at the end of 863, the new king of Denmark promulgated a new constitution.
France, the two principalities and Denmark unified political system. This caused protests from German nationalists,
Bismarck used this as an excuse to provoke a war against Denmark in February 1864. To avoid worrying,
He dragged Austria into the war. The Puao Coalition quickly defeated the Danish main force and signed a peace treaty in 10. Denmark
Forced to give up two principalities, occupied and managed by Prussia and Austria.
1866, Bismarck launched a war against Austria. After the war against Denmark, the contradiction between Prussia and Austria intensified.
Bismarck said: "If Austria did not suffer defeat on the battlefield, Prussia would not be allowed to be unified."
Master of Germany. "In order to prepare for the war against Austria, Bismarck launched an active diplomatic activity. April
The Prussian government and Italy concluded an alliance treaty, and France and Russia did not interfere in Germany.
The guarantee of the transaction. 17 In June, Prussia sent troops to Holstein to provoke a war against Austria. The same day, Austria
Li declared war, and the next day, Prussia declared war on Austria, and the Puao War broke out.
At the beginning of the war, Prussian troops occupied suckling and Hesse, and forcibly occupied them on June 29th.
Hanover surrendered. Before the war between Prussia and Austria began on June 24th, Prussia controlled most of northern Germany.
Will the country.
Due to the Italian attack, Austria was forced to fight on two fronts. On the battlefield in southern Italy, the Italian army
Defeated at sea and on land. But in the main battlefield in the north, Bohemia battlefield, Austria
The people suffered a heavy defeat. 1July 3, 866, in the battle of Sadova, Czech Republic, both sides
More than 500,000 troops were invested in a decisive battle unprecedented in European history. Due to Prussia
The smooth progress of military reform has made the army well equipped, such as firing pins, guns and equipment.
Give double-track artillery, etc. And Austria seems to lag behind a number; Especially Mao Qi's heroic and decisive command, and Pu Jun's morale is higher, because he thinks this is fighting for the reunification of Germany; In addition, Pu Juntie
The rapid mobilization of roads and the unified command of telegrams have played a role. In this battle, the Austrian army suffered heavy losses and heavy casualties.
About 40,000 people were captured.
14 In July, Pu Jun approached Vienna, the Austrian capital, and the Austrian army was forced to ask for help from France. August 23 rd
Japan and Austria signed a peace treaty in Prague, stipulating that Austria would withdraw from the German Confederation and recognize Prussia in Lai.
To the north of the Milky Way, the North German Federation was established, and Schweich, Holstein and Han impressively assisted the Austrian army in combat.
Norway, Hesse, Nassau and Frankfurt are classified as Prussia.
The victory of foreign war consolidated Prussia's dominant position in Germany.
1867 The North German Federation headed by Prussia was established. King Pu is the head of state and Wu.
Commander-in-chief of the army, and Bismarck was the federal prime minister. And put the original relationship with Austria is not
The wrong four states of South Germany-Bavaria, Baden, Wü rttemberg, Hesse-Damstedt and the German Federation.
The country concludes tariff and trade agreements, and its armed forces are supervised by the Prussian General Staff.
Bismarck completely excluded Austria from the German Federation through the war with Austria.
Completed "German hegemony". Mao Qi wrote many years later: "1866.
1989 The war did not start because Prussia's survival was threatened, but was planned by the government.
Watch the war. This war is not for territory, but for imaginary interests.
For power. "
After the Puo-Austrian War, the four southern German States (Bavaria, Baden, Wü rttemberg, Hesse-Daams Tate)
Due to the obstruction of France, he did not join the North German Federation. So the war against France became the realization of Germany.
The last step of reunification. French Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte has made great efforts to ease domestic class contradictions and dominate Europe.
He opposed German reunification and prepared to wage war against Prussia, while Bismarck tried to wage war against France.
Strive to finally complete the reunification of Germany and seize Alsace and Lorraine mining areas in France.
1870, 19 In July, Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte and Bismarck used the issue of succession to the Spanish throne as an excuse.
Provoked the Franco-Prussian War. From September/KLOC-0 to 2, the French army was defeated in the Battle of Sedang, with Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte rate.
65,438+10,000 troops surrendered to the Germans, and the war ended in the defeat of the French army.
/kloc-at the end of 0/870, the four southern German states joined the German Federation and established the German Empire.
187 1 year 1 month 1 day, at Versailles, France, the king of Prussia boarded the German Empire.
The throne of the emperor. In April, the newly elected Imperial Parliament approved the Constitution of the German Empire. According to this constitution,
The German Empire consists of 22 independent monarchies, 3 free cities and 1 municipality directly under the central government, which was finally completed.
The unification of Germany.
The completion of German reunification is a historic progress. It ended Germany's long political division.
The situation has gradually established centralization, unified the economic system of each state and developed transportation.
Industry, the implementation of protective tariff policy, promoted the rapid development of German capitalist economy. Simultaneous reunification
It also created favorable conditions for the rapid development of the German workers' movement throughout the country. After reunification, Germany's
History has entered a new stage.
Because a unified and powerful German Empire replaced Prussia, they cooperated after 18 15.
The disintegration of the relatively stable system "five-headed politics" has brought Europe into a more turbulent situation.
Period.
While the reunification of Germany was completed, it also left a legacy-the spread of militarism in Germany.
Abuse, which brought disaster to the people of Germany, Europe and even the world in the next half century.
Hurt.