Emptiness is a Buddhist doctrine. Different periods and factions of Buddhism have different interpretations of emptiness. In primitive Buddhism, emptiness is just a common concept in the whole Buddhist theoretical system. During the Buddhist period, this concept became one of the key points of debate at that time. Mahayana Buddhism period, especially the Mahayana thought of Prajna sutra system, was further based on emptiness. From the negative object, space can be divided into "I am empty" and "I am empty". I am empty, that is, I think that all sentient beings are formed by the aggregation of various elements, which are constantly flowing and dying, so there is no dominant subject-I, which is the view of Hinayana Buddhism; However, Fakong believes that everything depends on certain reasons or conditions, and there is no qualitative stipulation in itself, but Fakong is not nothingness, it is an indescribable reality called "Miao", which is mainly the viewpoint expounded by Mahayana Middle School. From the way of argument, space can be divided into "analysis of space" and "body space time" The analysis of emptiness means that the unity can be decomposed into several parts or factors, and the unreal and uncomfortable things can be explained by the birth and death changes of things, which is mainly the method adopted by Hinayana; When the body is empty, it is considered that nothing needs to be decomposed. As long as we observe it with the theory of emptiness, we can understand it as emptiness. This is mainly the method adopted by Mahayana. As to whether it is the ultimate truth, Mahayana divides emptiness into "but emptiness" and "not only emptiness". Taking emptiness as absolute nothingness, we can't realize that it is actually a form of existence, that is, a kind of beauty, that is, but emptiness is also called "evil interest emptiness"; On the other hand, if we can realize that things have not only an empty side, but also an empty side, that there is no empty, empty, empty in the air, and empty in memory, it is not only empty, but also called the middle way. Based on the above-mentioned basic explanation of emptiness, various Buddhist factions have also deduced three emptiness, four emptiness, six emptiness, seven emptiness, ten emptiness, eleven emptiness, twelve emptiness, fourteen emptiness, sixteen emptiness, eighteen emptiness, nineteen emptiness and twenty emptiness. Among them, the eighteen empty spaces mentioned in "Da Pin Prajna" and "On Great Wisdom" have great influence.

Tao is an important category of China's ancient philosophy. Used to explain the origin, ontology, laws or principles of the world. In different philosophical systems, its meaning is different.

The original meaning of Tao refers to the road and the smooth road, and later it gradually developed into a truth to express the regularity of things. This change has gone through a long historical process. In the Book of Changes, there are "What is the responsibility of returning to the Tao" (small livestock), "smooth road" (trampling) and "coming back after seven days of returning to the Tao" (repetition), all of which mean the Tao.

"Shang Shu Hong Fan" said: "Nothing is not done well, just follow Wang Zhidao; Do all kinds of evil and take the road of being king. Without partiality or partisanship, the king swings; Without the party and the public, the king is flat; There is no opposition, and the king is upright. " Tao here has the correct meaning of laws, norms and regulations, which shows that the concept of "Tao" has developed in an abstract direction.

Zuo Zhuan in the Spring and Autumn Period once said: "I heard that villains can become enemies, and the path is big." The so-called Tao, loyal to the people and believing in God "and" Wang Lu exhausted, the Tao of Heaven also ". Tao here has a regular meaning, which shows that the concept of Tao has gradually risen to the philosophical category.

At the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, Laozi first regarded Taoism as the origin and universal law of the universe and became the founder of Taoism. Before Laozi, people only inferred the origin of everything to the sky, but did not touch whether the sky had an origin. When I arrived at Laozi, I began to infer the source of heaven and put forward a way. He believes that everything in the world is born of Tao. He said: "things are mixed, born, lonely, independent and unchanging, and can be the mother of the world." I don't know its name, the word says, it is strong, it is big and fleeting, and it is far away. " (Chapter 25 of Lao Zi).

There have always been different interpretations of what Laozi said. Some people think that Tao is the spiritual noumenon and the highest principle that exists independently of material entities, and claim that Laozi's theory of Tao is objective idealism. Others think that Tao is an inseparable unity of chaos in the primitive state of the universe, and claim that Laozi's theory of Tao is materialism. Laozi believes that the process of Tao generating all things in the world is "Tao gives birth to one, two, three and all things" (Chapter 42). After the Tao generates all things, it is contained in the universe itself as the basis of the existence of all things in the world. Tao is universal, all-encompassing and all-encompassing. Although Tao exists in the universe, it is different from tangible things that can be felt. It is invisible, deaf and irresistible, and it is what constitutes the same essence of all things in heaven and earth. So we can't rely on the sensory organs to achieve it, and it is difficult to express it in ordinary words. We can only use metaphors and descriptions to illustrate its existence.

For the unification of the world, Lao Tzu made a genius speculation and description. Laozi's Taoist theory has a far-reaching influence on later generations.

The evolution of Tao theory

Fan Li, who is slightly behind Laozi, thinks that heaven is the law of development and change of things. He believes that personnel must be "in harmony with yin and yang and conform to the nature of heaven and earth", and violation of objective laws will inevitably lead to disaster. Madam, things must be related to heaven and earth, and then you can succeed. By "Heaven", he mainly refers to the contradictory movement law of Yang to Yin, Yin to Yang, surplus to contraction, and endless conflicts. Take the initiative to retreat when the weather is unfavorable to you, and take the initiative to attack when the weather is favorable. Influenced by Laozi's Taoist theory, Fan Li said that "the sky is full but not overflowing, prosperous but not arrogant, and you don't reward your work" (in Mandarin and Vietnamese). However, he advocated timely and positive progress and criticized and revised Laozi's thought of valuing softness and keeping women.

During the Warring States Period, the Taoist family in Xia Ji, Qi explained the Tao with "essence", and regarded the empty and invisible Tao as "essence" flowing between heaven and earth and existing in all things. He said: "Where there is a way, there is no glory without roots, stems and leaves. Everything is born, everything is achieved, and life is said. ..... the essence is also the essence of qi. Airway is life "(pipe industry). Laozi once described Tao as "rushing gas" and said that "there is essence in it". Xia Ji's Taoism further developed Laozi's thought from the perspective of materialism, and expressed Taoism as the ubiquitous essence of life. The theory of essence and qi had a great influence on the later development of traditional Chinese medicine. But it endows the essence with spirituality, tends to be mysterious, and cannot draw a clear line with idealism.

Zhuangzi was a representative of Taoist school in the middle and late Warring States Period. He believes that Tao is the ultimate source of the world, an all-encompassing, all-encompassing and eternal universe, and denies any master who transcends Tao. He also believes that it is impossible to put forward a clear stipulation on Tao, that is, "the name of Tao is not correct" and "it is clear but not Tao". Even if it is named Tao, it is "vain". Therefore, it can only be said that "the husband and the Tao are affectionate and credible, and inaction is invisible; Transmissible but unacceptable, accessible but invisible; Since its roots, there is no heaven and earth, and there have been ghosts and gods since ancient times; Before Tai Chi, it was not high, under the six poles, not deep, born, not long, longer than ancient, not old "("Tai Shang Lao Jun "). For Zhuangzi's Tao, some people in the current academic circles think it is the absolute spirit of independent self-existence and transcending time and space, and prove that Tao is the creator of immateriality with the language of "material immateriality" in Zhuangzi. Others think that Tao refers to a material noumenon with infinity and eternity, resulting in the coexistence of heaven and earth, and based on the language of Zhuangzi, it is explained that Tao is the gas of matter. Most scholars believe that Zhuangzi exaggerates the mystery of the origin of the world, absolutes the relativity of things, and denies the differences between things, which is manifested in relativism. His Taoist theory is obviously idealistic.

Han Fei absorbed and developed Laozi's simple dialectics, put forward a theory about the relationship among Taoism, morality and reason, and dialectically handled their relationship. He believes that "Tao is the beginning and source of all things", "what all things are" and "what all things are made of". Take Tao as the universal law of the material world and the universal basis for the existence and development of all things in the world. He also believes that "Tao" is the ultimate category and universal law of all things, and the special essence of all things is "virtue", and "virtue is the merit of Tao"; The special law of all things is "reason" and Tao is "the source of all things". The relationship among Taoism, morality and reason is the dialectical unity of universality and particularity, infinity and finiteness of the material world.

During the Warring States period, the Confucian scholar Yijing also put forward the theory of "Tao", which was considered as the universal law of the mutual transformation of opposites. The book of changes "cohesion" says that "one yin and one yang are the Tao", and the mutual transformation of one yin and one yang is the Tao. He also said: "The metaphysical refers to the Tao, while the metaphysical refers to the device", and regards the Tao as an invisible abstract law, which is different from tangible concrete things.

In the Song Dynasty, Zhang Zai took Tao as the process of gasification, saying that "from gasification, there is a name for Tao"; Cheng Yi and Zhu Ze are based on Tao, which embodies the difference between Qi-based theory and Reason-based theory.

In the history of China's philosophy, the category of Tao was put forward by Taoism and later accepted by various theories. Although there are different understandings, it has become synonymous with the origin of the universe and the universal laws of the universe. It has improved the level of theoretical thinking and explored the origin and laws of things.

1) road. Tunnel | railway | sewer.

(2) the way; Direction. Like-minded | Please point out the maze.

(3) the reason; Just a few things. Example: the head is the right way.

(4) Methods and measures; Skill. The way to make money is to deal with a man as he deals with you.

(5) virtue; Feudal ethics. Moral | great deviance.

(6) Ideology or religionism. The way of Confucius and Mencius | preaching | monasticism.

(7) Taoism. A school of thought in ancient China, represented by Lao Dan (Laozi) and Zhuang Zhou. Tao, Tao, extraordinary Tao.

(8) Taoism (one of the main sects in China, founded in the Eastern Han Dynasty); Taoism; Belongs to Taoism. Taoist | Taoist temple.

(9) Some feudal superstitious organizations. Avenue | doorway.

(10) said. Speak plainly | speak east and speak west | hit the nail on the head.

To express love in words. Thank you | Apologize.

(1 1) historical administrative regions. The Tang Dynasty was equivalent to the current provincial province, and there were provincial roads in the Qing Dynasty and the early years of the Republic of China.

(12) line; Slim marks. Draw a horizontal lane.

(13) quantifier. A ditch | two problems | cracked a seam.

The meaning of Tao

Tao is a process. This is the first meaning of Tao. Tao is not only a systematic and overall summary of all things, but also a highly abstract and summary of the development process of all things. Tao is not a static metaphysical entity, but a process. The process of Tao is the process of Tao giving birth to all things, which is what Laozi said, "Tao gives birth to one, two, three and three", that is to say, Tao is transformed into one, one into two, two into three and three into all things. In this process, the Tao goes round and round, "there is no danger in the cycle", and its movement cycle is "great death, far away, far away", gradually leaving, further and further, and returning to a certain extent. Everything is back to the way. The process of Tao is composed of various relationships that can only be explained by chaos theory, so Tao is also a relationship.

Tao is the source. This is the second meaning of Tao. Tao is the mother of all things in the world. Everything comes from Tao and is the name of Tao from different angles. This is the most mysterious and profound. Tao is the noumenon and source of all things. Everything in heaven and earth evolved from Tao. As the source, Tao is a seamless thing. Laozi pointed out that "the unknown is the beginning of heaven and earth, and the mother of all things is named", "the mystery is the gate of Wan Qi", "the gate of Xuanzang is the root of heaven and earth" and "the world has a beginning and is thought to be the mother of the world". In other words, Tao is the origin of all things in the world. The "beginning", "mother", "root" and "door" here all contain the meaning of origin, but they are different in levels. As its origin, it is unique. It has no front, no back and no bottom. "I don't know whose son it is before the emperor." It seems to be in front of the Emperor of Heaven, but there is nothing in front. "Things are born in harmony and born naturally" existed before there was heaven and earth. As the source, it is a material thing. "Tao is a thing, but it is dreamy. There are things in it and essence in it."

Tao is the law. This is the third meaning of Tao. Tao is the law of material movement, and Tao is the ultimate reason for the change of everything in heaven and earth. Laozi pointed out that "Tao is the foundation of all things", that is to say, Tao is the law of the movement of all things. Tao is ubiquitous, it exists in all things and runs through the development process of all things. Everything originates from the Tao and returns to the Tao, "each belongs to its own origin, in the final analysis, it is static and endless." Returning to nature is the eternal law of things development. As a conventional Tao, it is invisible, inaudible and intangible. The so-called "one, one and one" is "invisible without image", but everything is dominated and restricted by it. The laws of Tao are irresistible and inviolable. Only by following the law of Tao and adhering to the principle of "inaction" can things be done well. Otherwise, "if things are strong, they will be old, indicating ignorance and ignorance for a long time." If they break the law, they will be punished by the law, and the outcome will be extremely miserable.

Tao is the law. This is the fourth meaning of Tao. Laozi regards Tao as the law that must be followed. He said, "Therefore, people who practice Tao are the same as Tao." He asked people to adhere to and follow the laws of Tao. He also said that "Dao Ji" means following the ancient laws, controlling reality and understanding the laws of history, which is a concrete manifestation of following the laws of Taoism. Abandon this principle, there is righteousness, "abandon the Tao, there is righteousness." Laozi advocates "only passing by" and "cherishing mother", that is, adhering to the Tao and doing things according to the Tao. Tao is also the eternal law of observing things. "Since ancient times and today, I can't read all the stories of the people. How can I know the stories of the people?" In other words, Laozi himself observed everything with the law of Tao and set an example for people. Laozi thinks that people have different attitudes towards Taoism. "Staff sergeant learns Tao and works hard", and a gentleman can stick to the principle of Tao and do it. As for the others, they must be dwarfed. "Who can spare time to serve the world, only Tao", and those who adhere to Tao can dedicate their spare time to society. Whether to act according to the principle of Tao or not, the result will be different. "There is a way in the world, there is no way in the world, and there are military horses in the suburbs." If you stick to the principle of Tao, the world will be peaceful and stable. If you give up the principle of Tao, you will fall into panic. Follow the laws of Tao, and Tao will fulfill you. "People like Tao will enjoy it." Finally, the principle of Tao is the highest principle, which has high value. "Heaven is beneficial and harmless."

Characteristics of Tao

The objectivity of Tao. Tao is objective and the origin of all things. As the source, Tao and nature are the same and natural. Laozi said, "Taoism is natural." "Tao is a thing, but it is dreamy and sudden, and there is something in it, which contains essence" and "Yi Xi Wei" are confused. It is tangible and intangible, with images and nothing. Tao is real chaos, and chaos is objective and disorderly. "Nothing" and "Being" are aliases of Tao, both of which exist objectively. Tao creates and nurtures all things, and Tao is the "animal" of all things.

Universality of Tao. Tao is omnipotent, "the road is broad and can be controlled." Tao is like a flooded river, flowing everywhere, up and down, left and right, in all directions. Tao is everywhere. "Since ancient times, its name will not disappear." Tao is eternal. The universality of Tao determines its great inclusiveness and implication. "Tao is in the world, and the valleys are in the rivers and seas", which can accommodate all rivers and seas, showing its universality and infinity. "Goodness is like water" and "Water is more than Tao". Water is everywhere, and Tao is everywhere.

Cycle back and forth. The movement process of Tao is cyclic. Tao is eternal, flowing and circulating. "Wisdom, wisdom, wisdom", the Tao starts from the starting point, goes further and further, reaches a certain limit and comes back. It is "independent and unchanging, and it is not dangerous to move around", and it does not decay when circulating. Always start from the starting point and finally return to the starting point to form a circle. This is very similar to the circle formed by the apparent movement of the sun in one day, and it is also very similar to the cycle of a solar year. The two are isomorphic. The orientation sequence of east, west, north and south is consistent with the time sequence of spring, summer, autumn and winter. Space and time are connected, time and space are connected, and time and space are unified. Space can be known from time, and time can be known from space.

Unity of opposites. Tao is the unity of complex contradictions, and the biggest contradiction is the contradiction between Yin and Yang, which is similar to the contradiction between Hegel's affirmation and negation. "everything is negative and holds yang", "one yin and one yang is the Tao". Yin and Yang are the functions and attributes of Tao, and Tao is the unity of Yin and Yang. Associated with this is the contradiction between "nothing" and "being", which are aliases and incarnations of Tao. They complement each other and transform each other. Without nothing, there would be no you, and without you, there would be no nothing. In addition, there are a series of contradictions, such as difficulty, luck, strength, rigidity, beauty and evil, good and evil, and so on. Laozi is the first master of dialectics in the history of China. His exposition contains rich dialectical thoughts.

Doing nothing. Inaction is the son of Tao and the essence and embodiment of Tao. Nature does nothing, and Tao "does nothing without doing anything". It didn't do anything, but it did everything. Heaven gets it, becomes clear, gets it slowly, becomes quiet, and the idea of inaction runs through the whole article. Laozi transformed the natural inaction of Tao into man, demanding that man be as natural as Tao. He pointed out that "if you do nothing, you will die." People can do everything well as long as they adhere to the principle of inaction. Daoxu. The emptiness of Tao is the realm of Tao, which is invisible, ubiquitous and boundless. It is all the time, with no beginning and no end. Is the biggest void, it produces all things, is the patriarch of all things; You will never be satisfied with everything. Its function is endless, the function of Tao deficiency, and the function of nothing. Can resolve the contradiction of all things, coordinate the relationship between all things, and blend with all things.

Interpretation of "Tao" in Lv Zu's Ming Dow Theory

In Lv Zu and Ming Dow, Lv Dongbin thinks that the word "Tao" is from "first" to "clumsy", and "first" refers to "congenital"; "Jump" means to stop at the first sight. "There is a way is born. What do you mean? Sex can't be round, unless it is, life can't be like this. Too inhuman to speak. Therefore, Taoism skillfully uses metaphors, saying that jade is liquid and gold is life-saving. Those who are rich in jade and gold are born with the same skills. The same is true for those who are born human. Ghosts and gods can be traces of nature, but they are also the goodness of Qi. " "The first one is the first one, taking the innate meaning; The occupier will stop when he sees it. "