The leaders of the Charcoal Party are keen on conspiracy. The so-called "uprisings" led by them, such as 1820 and 1 uprisings in two Sicilian kingdoms and Piedmont (the mainland part of Sardinia), were actually purely military plots, and the people hardly participated in them, so they were quickly suppressed by the Austrian army. They don't have a clear program of their own, just waiting for Paris to signal the uprising. This practice, which is divorced from the people and the reality of Italy, has plunged the charcoal party into a profound crisis. Ma Zhini is determined to transform the charcoal party. He was arrested in June because of the traitor's informer. Although he was released after three months for lack of evidence, the authorities stipulated that he should either go into exile or live in seclusion in a remote place in Sardinia. Ma Zhini chose the first way out. 183 1 April, he arrived in Marseille, France, where there were a large number of Italian exiles. With their support, he devoted himself to the establishment of the secret revolutionary organization "Young Italy" and its network of organizations in various places, and founded an organ publication of the same name. "Young Italy" advocates liberating Italy from foreign oppression through the road of revolution and establishing a unified democratic republic. 183 1 June, Ma Zhini wrote "General Instructions to Italian Youth"-the general instructions first condemned the revolutionary leaders of 1820- 182 1 and 18365438. The general directive solemnly declared that the political goal of "Young Italy" was "to make Italy a free, equal, unified, independent and sovereign country again". In particular, it demonstrates the necessity of "unification" and "building a harmonious country". The general directive pointed out that the struggle means of "young Italy" was "education and uprising", and the idea of unity and independence was widely publicized among the people, with the aim of mobilizing the people to hold an uprising. Influenced by the argument that France is the first in Europe, French historian Gizzo put forward the viewpoint of "Italian initiative and world mission" and opposed the dependence and wait-and-see policy of the Charcoal Party on France. Therefore, in the general instruction, he emphasized that Italy has the ability to carry out its own revolution, and the uprising should be launched by the Italians themselves, not by a foreign country.
Ma Zhini's propaganda is very successful. Two or three years later, his above-mentioned programs have become household names in Italy. He instilled the idea of unity and independence into the consciousness of every Italian, which had a far-reaching impact on Italy's national liberation movement. However, Ma Zhini's program did not seriously care about the situation of the oppressed masses, especially did not meet the requirements of farmers, so it did not clearly put forward the proposition and slogan of solving social problems, but described participating in the national liberation struggle as a religious obligation of every Italian and a sacred mission entrusted to them by God. On the other hand, the Italian bourgeoisie, with the agricultural bourgeoisie as the main body, was dissatisfied with the political system at that time, but all governments could still guarantee their basic income, so there was no urgent need to change the existing system quickly. Ma Zhini lacks a careful analysis of the actual situation in Italy. He pointed out that the slogan written on the green, white and red tricolor flag of "Young Italy"-on the one hand, freedom, equality and fraternity, on the other hand, independence and unity-reflected the general trend of Italian historical development, but only a small number of patriotic youths accepted this program, and most people thought it was utopia and dangerous. His program and actions under his guidance are divorced from the actual situation of the broad masses of the people and Italy, so the previous uprisings he launched are actually still the conspiracy of a few people. 1833- 1834 During the period, French and Austrian occupation troops were stationed in papal countries, while in other countries, government power exceeded revolutionary power. As the conditions were not yet ripe, Ma Zhini decided to launch an uprising in Genoa, the kingdom of Sardinia, and sent people to organize a plot among the officers and men of the army. Many people were arrested and martyred because of a sergeant's report, and a large number of patriots fled abroad. Ma Zhini moved from Marseille to Geneva, planned to make an expedition to Savoy to attack the kingdom of Sardinia, and entrusted garibaldi to Genoa to plan the naval uprising of the kingdom. However, the 200 expeditions he finally assembled wandered away, leaving only a few people in February 1834; Those who infiltrated Savoy were defeated by the gendarmerie, and the plan to plan a naval uprising in Genoa was aborted. During the whole development of the situation, neither the people nor the bourgeoisie took action.
The failed "young Italy" collapsed. As an independent political force, it no longer exists. Many people left Ma Zhini. 1837 At the beginning of this year, Ma Zhini was forced to move to London and live a very poor life. /kloc-in the summer of 0/839, with the support of several friends, the organization and publicity work were resumed. 1840 On April 30th, he announced the reconstruction of "Juvenile Italy".
In order to expand the mass base of the patriotic movement, he established the Italian Workers' Federation in London, founded the Workers' Newspaper and engaged in educational and charitable activities among overseas Chinese. He thinks that the union of labor and capital and the equal distribution of labor products are the most ideal social system, so he opposes the spread of socialist theory in Italy; Advocate class cooperation and oppose class struggle. He believes that the bourgeoisie and the working class are not opposing forces, and his own mission is to unite them to pursue the same goal. He also doesn't understand the importance of solving the land problem and farmers' participation in the revolution. As a result, his activities in labor had little effect. In the mid-forties, the Italian national liberation movement reached a new climax, and the feelings of all social classes fighting for independence and hating Austria were greatly strengthened. At this time, Ma Zhini put the struggle for risorgimento and independence in the first place, and took the establishment of the Republic of * * * as the historical task after reunification. In order to strengthen the movement of unification and independence, he was prepared to compromise with Pope pius ix and King Carlo Alberto of Sardinia. 1At the beginning of September, 847, Mazzini wrote to the Pope, asking him to lead the Italian independence and reunification movement. 1848 In the first anti-Austrian war, Ma Zhini was ready to cooperate with King Sardinia.
1849 On February 9th, after the Roman Constitutional Convention announced the establishment of the Roman Republic, Ma Zhini was elected as the representative of the Constitutional Convention. On the evening of March 5, he came to Rome. He asked the Republic of China to devote all its strength to the war against Austria, not the Constitution. To this end, he called for strengthening the power of the government, but said nothing about improving the situation of the lower class people and farmers in the city. "Let the peasants in Campania be in a more miserable slave situation than their ancestors in the Roman Empire." According to his suggestion, the Constituent Assembly established a three-ruling government with unlimited power headed by him on March 29th.
When the European revolution declined and reactionary forces rose in many countries, the Roman Republic was proclaimed. Fearing that the revolution would spread from Rome to the whole country, France, Spain, two Sicilian kingdoms and Austria decided to intervene by armed means. 1849 On April 25th, France began its military invasion. On the night of April 30th, 6000 French troops attacked Rome. There are 65,438+00,000 regular troops and volunteers guarding the city. After six hours of fierce fighting, garibaldi troops guarding the city wall defeated the French army and pursued the enemy for 20 kilometers. But Ma Zhini fantasized that Paris would change its policy and ordered garibaldi to stop chasing and return to Rome. In order to gain time for reinforcements, France asked for negotiations with the Republic of China. At this time, garibaldi troops repelled the invasion of two Sicilian troops and pursued them to the enemy's territory. Ma Zhini was afraid that the negotiations with France would break down, so he recalled garibaldi to Rome.
After the French army was reinforced, it immediately tore up the armistice agreement and suddenly attacked again. Garibaldi's troops kept fighting back against the enemy. On the night of June 2 1-22, the enemy occupied the first line of defense in * * * and China. The soldiers in Rome are exhausted. In this case, Ma Zhini's request to organize a counterattack and recapture the lost position was opposed by garibaldi. Garibaldi suggested organizing a thousand troops to attack the enemy's rear, but Ma Zhini refused to adopt it. The differences between them have deepened sharply. At dawn on June 30, the French army launched a general attack and occupied the second line of defense. * * * and China's defense, though heroic, never got the support of the broad masses of farmers, and failed. 1848- 1849 After the failure of the revolution, Ma Zhini estimated that a new climax of the European revolution was coming. In order to win, he suggested that all Democrats in Europe unite into a fighting organization. 1850, the "Central Committee of European Democrats" was established in London, and a declaration was issued, proposing the laws of progress, unity and morality; Freedom, equality and fraternity; The sacredness of private property; The principle of providing loans and education to the people is the foundation of the whole European Democratic Union.
Ma Zhini's declaration was sharply criticized by Marx and Engels. They pointed out that the possibility of a new European revolution does not exist when the new economic prosperity period of bourgeois society has clearly appeared. They revealed that the declaration denied the existence of class struggle and asked all classes to forget the opposition of interests and seek the essence of reconciliation. In fact, Ma Zhini's fantasy was soon shattered. Democrats in various countries have always had serious differences on the principles of the declaration and the candidates for the Committee. 185 1 12 months later, the Committee actually no longer exists.
At the same time as the establishment of the European Central Committee, Ma Zhini also established the Italian National Committee, announcing that the Committee aimed at achieving independence, freedom and unity, and took the anti-Austrian war and the convening of the Italian Constitutional Conference as the means. However, he did not combine the national liberation movement with the struggle for social liberation, and put aside the general requirements of social innovation. Therefore, these ideas have also been sharply criticized among partito democratico people.
Several uprisings launched by Ma Zhini in 1950s were aimed at expelling foreign rulers and striving for Italian independence and unification. 1852 he decided to launch an anti-Austrian uprising in Lombardy. The Austrian police authorities discovered the plot and many patriots were arrested or shot. Lombardy-Venice's secret organization was completely destroyed. New divisions have emerged among Ma Zhini's followers. The Military Commission, which is responsible for making the uprising plan, criticized and demanded to change the method of leading the uprising from abroad regardless of the local actual situation at that time, which was resolutely rejected by Ma Zhini.
In this very unfavorable situation, Mazzini supported Milan civilians to hold an uprising and sent people to lead it. 1853 65438+ 10, he himself arrived at the Swiss border near Lombardy, ready to enter Lombardy immediately once the uprising was successful. On Sunday, February 6th, the Milan uprising began. The insurgents took advantage of the Austrian soldiers' vacation to suddenly attack barracks and fortresses. Plan to seize the armory, occupy strategic locations, call on residents to revolt and repel the Austrian counterattack. However, the small uprising team was far from completing the huge strategic plan, and the attack was a complete failure. Two or three hundred rebels were arrested and many were sentenced to death. After the failure of Milan Uprising, Ma Zhini also instructed his followers to launch 5-6 small-scale uprisings in Lombardy-Venetian Kingdom. The number of insurgent troops varies from 30 to 40, with a maximum of 100. Every time it ended in a fiasco.
1857, Mazzini raised funds and decided to make an expedition to Supplee in the south, aiming at the Bourbon dynasties in two Sicilian kingdoms. The expedition failed for the first time because of the storm on the way. The second time, an expeditionary force of more than 300 people arrived in Supplee, but the local secret organization did not respond and the people were cold to them. The authorities in Naples took timely measures to suppress it, and the exploration failed again. Since then, the Ma Zhini movement has split. In the Italian national liberation movement, Ma Zhini lost his leading position. He had no direct political influence on 1859, 1860, the Sicilian expedition to overthrow the bourbon dynasty, and 1866, the third anti-Austrian war to recover Venice. Nevertheless, "... no one will deny that the Italian revolution has been linked with his name for 30 years, and at the same time, Europe also recognizes him as an excellent expression of the national aspirations of his compatriots. "
Although Ma Zhini played an important role in the Italian national liberation movement, he did great harm to the international workers' revolutionary movement. When International Working Men’s Association 1864 was founded, Ma Zhini tried to guide the international workers' movement with his own views, which was refuted by Marxists. Therefore, Mazzini broke off relations with the international community. In order to resist the international influence on the Italian workers' movement, he vilified the international and Paris Commune and opposed the spread of Marxism in Italy. So Engels criticized Ma Zhini's reactionary remarks and pointed out his consistent position against proletarian revolution. 1872 In March, Mazzini died in Pisa at the age of 67.