Despite the merger, the economic gap between East and West Germany is not small. The former West Germany subsidizes the former East Germany by about 50 billion euros every year.
1May 8, 945 Hitler surrendered unconditionally. According to the Crimean Declaration and the Potsdam Agreement, defeated Germany should become a unified, independent and peace-loving democratic country. Before the emergence of such a country, Germany was temporarily occupied by the Soviet Union, the United States, Britain and France, and the capital Berlin was also divided and controlled by the four countries.
Because of the different positions, purposes and interests of the East-West alliance, all the agreements are interpreted as favorable to them. On the issue of German reunification and Berlin, the four countries and various political forces in their occupied areas launched a fierce and complicated struggle. 1In June 1948, the occupied areas of the United States, Britain and France merged.1On May 23, 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was established separately, referred to as Federal Germany or West Germany for short. On September 20, Adenauer formed the first federal government. In the same year1October 7th, 10, the Soviet-occupied area also declared the establishment of the German Democratic Republic, or GDR for short. Since then, the unified German country has split into two parts, and two Germans have appeared on the world stage at the same time. Both Germany are sovereign countries and have been recognized by many countries and established diplomatic relations with them. 1973 was also accepted as a member of the United Nations; Both sides have joined different military, political and economic groups. In recent years, relations between the two countries have improved. 1972 signed the treaty on the basis of relations, mutually recognized sovereign States, established normal good-neighborly relations with each other, and established permanent representative offices with each other. Leaders of the two countries exchanged visits and exchanged views on bilateral relations and international issues. Whether Germany and Germany should be reunified or not and on what basis should be decided by the two peoples themselves.
What is the "West Berlin Problem"?
Berlin, formerly known as "Great Berlin", was the capital of Germany before World War II. After the war, according to relevant international agreements, Berlin, like Germany as a whole, was occupied by the Soviet Union, the United States, Britain and France, and there was a unified anti-fascist municipal government in the early days. 1948, the occupied areas of the United States, Britain and France merged to form a "triple occupied area"; In the same year, the temporary democratic government of Great Berlin was established in the eastern region occupied by the Soviet Union. 1949, three western countries held city council elections in the west to form the West Berlin municipal government. At this point, a complete Berlin was divided into two parts: East Berlin and West Berlin. West Berlin is located in East Germany and becomes an "island city"; East Berlin is the capital of the German Democratic Republic.
West Berlin covers an area of 480 square kilometers, accounting for 54% of the whole Berlin. 198 1 year population is 1.9 million, accounting for 62% of the entire population of Berlin. West Berlin is a special political unit that is not independent. It is far from the Federal Republic of Germany, and the nearest distance is180km. Its transportation links with West Germany include three air lines (called air corridors), three railways, three highways and two waterways. Although it is integrated with the Federal Republic of Germany in judicial, economic, financial, monetary and social systems, West Germany can represent the interests of West Berlin in international organizations and conferences, but it is not an integral part of West Germany. Although a municipal government has been established, it is still under the military occupation of the three western countries, with the United States, Britain and France as the highest authorities in West Berlin. Military vehicles of the four countries can still patrol the whole city of Berlin.
Due to the different positions and interests of the Soviet Union, the United States, Britain, France and Germany, the East and the West waged a fierce struggle on the sovereignty of West Berlin and its major issues. Like the two Germans, the relationship between the two Berlin was very tense before the early 1960s, especially after the German Democratic Republic built the "Berlin Wall" around West Berlin in August 196 1, the tension in Berlin reached its peak. Later, with the continuous improvement of relations between Germany and Germany, especially after the four countries signed the Quadripartite Agreement in September 197 1, the situation in Berlin eased somewhat. However, due to the favorable interpretation of the terms of the agreement, the two sides still have disputes over the status of Berlin from time to time.
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yugoslaviansystem of socialist autonomy
Among the socialist countries, Yugoslavia was the first to get rid of the socialist construction model of the Soviet Union. She advocates social autonomy. 1950- 1963, which is the stage of workers' autonomy; 1963- 197 1 year is the stage of social autonomy; From 197 1, it is the stage of social autonomy based on common labor. Yugoslavia's reform attempt is original in socialist countries. For quite a period of time, it was widely criticized by international movements, saying that it was "revisionist" and "deviated from the socialist track". [ 1]
The main measures in the stage of Yugoslav workers' autonomy are: ① 1950 adopted on June 26th.
② Adopted in 195 1 year & gt, the mandatory plan was changed to the guiding plan, and the state no longer stipulated the proportion of accumulation and fund, and implemented the profit sharing system. Enterprises can make their own plans in accordance with the requirements of national plans, operate freely and be responsible for their own profits and losses. 1953, cancel the dual price system of administrative and economic means;
③ Expand the financial power and autonomy of enterprises and expand local sovereignty. At present, the focus of reform is decentralization, and factories are managed by workers. 1953, the federal parliament adopted a new constitution, which confirmed that the principle of autonomy is the foundation of the socio-economic system and the political system, and extended the workers' autonomy to all sectors of the national economy, culture, education and health. In rural areas, the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of China decided to abandon the socialist transformation model of the Soviet Union. 1953 In March, a decree announced that farmers could freely quit the cooperative and dissolve it. [2] By 1960, there were only 100 cooperatives in Yugoslavia. The government has strengthened the construction of state-owned farms and turned them into agro-industrial joint ventures. The employee autonomy system has played an important role in breaking the disadvantages of the old centralized system in senior high schools, but it also laid the foundation for decentralization.
In the stage of social autonomy, the focus of reform is to further decentralize. The scope of autonomy has expanded from factories and enterprises to social institutions and state organs. 1963 adopted the new constitution in April, and 1967 and 1968 amended the constitution twice, further expanding the power of local governments and the state. The new constitution stipulates that "autonomy is the essence of various relations in the socialist field", and the state economic institutions are not binding on autonomous units, which are market-oriented systems. [3]
1964, the southern parliament passed the> resolution, and began a comprehensive economic reform from 1965. Its main contents are as follows: ① further reduce state intervention, expand the production autonomy and income distribution rights of enterprises, and enhance the regulatory role of the market. The state only extracts 29% from the profits of enterprises; (2) The state entrusts most investment control rights to banks; (3) Reform the price system, adjust the price according to the international market price, and the commodity price is basically determined by the relationship between market supply and demand; (4) Liberalization of foreign trade and foreign exchange, lifting import restrictions on most commodities, reducing import taxes and allowing foreign direct investment in Yugoslavia. Therefore, the power of enterprise workers' committees has been comprehensively enhanced, and Yugoslavia's economy has changed from a centralized state-managed planned economy model to a market economy system. [4]
In the stage of social autonomy based on common labor, a complete social autonomy system has been established. 1969 put forward the principle of joint labor at the 10th Congress of the South * * * Alliance. 1976 passed the joint labor law, which organized scattered independent economic units into three-level joint labor organizations on the basis of voluntary and mutual benefit. Professional autonomy interests and regional local autonomy coexist, which are actually production departments and social departments. In rural areas, autonomous joint organizations of individual farmers have been developed. The core of the reform is to implement social autonomy, and the output value of social autonomous units accounts for 84% of the gross national product of 1977. Since 1985, the reform of Yugoslavia has entered the adjustment stage to correct the disadvantages of decentralism.
The basic principles of social and economic reform in Yugoslavia are: emphasizing that the process of national extinction should start with economic functions, and the social autonomy system means the beginning of the extinction of state functions, which draws a clear line with the Soviet Union's model of strengthening state functions; It is emphasized that social ownership is the basis of socialist autonomy system, which is neither state ownership nor collective ownership, but the highest form of socialist public ownership. It emphasizes the overall market regulation based on market economy, and advocates that social plans should meet the needs of the market, and the market decides the plan. The only acceptable socialist economic model is free competition. As far as commodity economy is concerned, there is no significant difference between socialism and capitalism.
The socio-economic reform in Yugoslavia is groundbreaking in socialist countries. First of all, it emphasizes enterprise autonomy and decentralization, focusing on the fundamental problem of expanding enterprise management autonomy, focusing on giving full play to enterprise vitality, carrying forward social and economic democracy, and embodying the principle of material interests. Secondly, it breaks through Stalin's theory and practice that under the socialist system, the means of production are not commodities and the law of value cannot regulate production. Third, it emphasizes the use of economic means and economic supervision to manage the economy. The socio-economic reform in Yugoslavia once promoted the economic development of Yugoslavia. [5]
However, Yugoslavia's foresight and failure to adjust the new problems in the reform in time have brought obvious unfavorable factors and difficulties to the sustained economic development.
First of all, it prematurely put forward and practiced the view that state functions began to die out. Yugoslavia's theory of social ownership is a voluntarism that transcends the times. At present, the level of productivity has not reached the level of social autonomy. Although it has a progressive significance in opposing the Soviet model, it has fallen into a misunderstanding because it overemphasizes social autonomy and absolutes it. This kind of social autonomy is actually a disguised form of unit ownership, with the tendency of departmental, regional and collective ownership.
The second is to absolutize the separation of the three powers, weaken the necessary central power, make localism, decentralism and nationalism rise, and cause macro-control. As a result of social autonomy, federalism has actually become a confederation. According to the new constitution, all major issues concerning economic policies and measures need the unanimous consent of six republics and two autonomous provinces before the Federation can decide, thus forming a decentralization model. It hinders the unified market economically, and the closed local market replaces the centralized and unified big market, resulting in economic anarchy and imbalance of economic structure. Due to macro-control, excessive expansion of total demand, excessive growth of consumption and investment, double-digit inflation, increased foreign trade deficit, excessive foreign debt, unreasonable utilization and increased unemployment. 198 1 annual per capita debt of $920. In the mid-1970s, the number of unemployed people was as high as 600,000-800,000, and nearly one million people fled. [6]
Economic reform in Hungary
Also in 1953, Najib imre, chairman of the Council of Ministers, proposed that Hungary should take the third road, which was in line with its national conditions and different from the Soviet Union, but it died because of the obstruction of the Soviet Union and the opposition of the Rakosi Group. 1after the Hungarian incident in June, 956, Cadal, as the new main leader of the party and government, set out to stabilize the political situation, restore the national economy and carry out reforms at a very difficult time. [7]
Hungary carried out local economic reform and policy adjustment in 1957- 1964. The main measures are:
(1) Adjust the national economic structure and give up the unrealistic huge plan of developing industry at a high speed. For example, during Rakosi's administration, he put forward the slogan of building a steel country despite the lack of steel. Reduce the accumulation rate and concentrate on developing light industry and agriculture.
② Reform the agricultural management system, adjust agricultural policies, cancel the compulsory sales system of agricultural products, persist in voluntary cooperative transformation, raise the purchase price of agricultural products, implement agricultural loan subsidies, and encourage farmers to get rich.
(3) Starting from 1962, reorganize industrial organizations, cancel the general bureaus of ministries and commissions, set up trusts, and reduce the mandatory indicators issued to enterprises; And implement profit sharing in enterprises.
Since 1965, Hungary has implemented a comprehensive economic reform focusing on industry. June 1965 1 1 The Hungarian Party held an enlarged meeting of the Central Committee to discuss < < A comprehensive review of the reform of the economic management system > >; . 1966 in may, the central plenary session passed a resolution on economic system reform, and the reform was piloted in 1966- 1967, and was fully rolled out in June 1968, and a new system was implemented. Later, two major adjustments were made in 1973 and 1976. [8] Some scholars say that the Hungarian economic reform model is an organic combination of Reg and Nyers's centrally planned economy and market economy.
This model: ① On the basis of public ownership of means of production, it emphasizes the organic combination of market economy and planned economy. On the issue of ownership of the means of production, it advocates the coexistence of various economic components dominated by the state-owned economy; Disagree that cooperatives are eager to transition to state-owned farms; Encourage the development of rural private plots economy, household sideline economy and various auxiliary economies, and allow individual economies with no more than 30 employees in agriculture, service industry and processing industry; Oppose monopoly and advocate competition among state-owned, cooperative and private enterprises. On the issue of commodity-currency relationship, we emphasize planned commodity-currency relationship, make enterprises become independent commodity producers, ensure that the market mechanism has a broad space for activities, organically combine centralized planned management with the positive role of the market, and formulate policies through the guiding planning system and the use of economic leverage.
(2) On the basis of expanding the autonomy of enterprises, clearly divide the decision-making power of the state and enterprises. The decision-making power related to macroeconomics and most of the decision-making power to expand reproduction belong to the state; The decision-making power of simple reproduction and partial expansion reproduction belongs to the enterprise. Distribution rights are controlled by the state, while production rights are more controlled by enterprises.
(3) Emphasis on managing the economy by economic means. Cancel mandatory planning targets, and the government guides the economy and implements the adjustment of economic operation through means such as taxation, price, loan, commission, investment and profit distribution.
(4) encourage enterprises to compete in the market under the guidance of the plan, and implement three mixed price systems: state-set price, maximum price and free price.
Generally speaking, Hungary's economic reform is between the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, and has absorbed the advantages of both in a certain sense. [9] However, the so-called combination is actually just a mixture and does not really operate according to the laws of the market economy. Since the late 1970s, economic development has been slow and there has been a crisis.
Poland's economic reform has suffered many setbacks.
After the Poznan incident in Poland from 65438 to 0956, Mulka came to power, published the October program, made policy adjustments and made some achievements. However, rising prices have been bothering the government of Mulka. 1959 and 1963, the government raised prices twice again, causing dissatisfaction among the broad masses of the people. The Polish government decided to raise the prices of 46 kinds of food and daily industrial products, which increased the average expenditure of each family by 20%. On June 5438+04, workers in coastal cities such as Gdansk and Szczecin took to the streets to protest and demonstrate, and the government dispatched military police to suppress them, resulting in 45 deaths and 1000 injuries. On February 20th, 65438, the Central Committee of Poland held the seventh plenary session of the Sixth Central Committee. Mulka was forced to resign and Gillek took over as the first secretary. [ 1 1]
The situation has not improved since Girek took office. 197 1 1 In February, the Polish Party held the sixth national congress, determined the new social and economic development strategy, and implemented the three high policies of "high speed, high consumption and high welfare" with the help of foreign capital and western technical equipment. It advocates "rebuilding a new Poland" within 10 years. The implementation of the new strategy was relatively smooth at the beginning, but due to excessive government investment, excessive accumulation, tight market supply, export difficulties and other reasons, the foreign trade deficit continued to rise and inflation intensified. 1976, the government tried to solve the economic difficulties by raising the grain tax, which led to strikes and riots in some cities on June 20-25, forcing the government to cancel the decision to raise prices again. [ 12]
In July, 1980, the price went up and went on strike. On August 17, Gdansk workers organized an independent trade union under the leadership of Walesa. Labor unrest quickly spread throughout Poland. [13] On September 6, at the Sixth Plenary Session of the Eighth Central Committee of the Polish Party, Kania took over as the first secretary of Girek. According to the analysis at the meeting, the deterioration of the economic situation in Poland is mainly caused by the long-term economic and political policy mistakes of the party and the government:
(1) introduced blindly. By 1979, the accumulated foreign trade deficit was as high as152 billion US dollars. Most imported equipment comes from developed capitalist countries. Due to poor management, many patents and equipment were not put into production, and only 1/3 of imported chemicals were not used.
Borrow too much. By 1980, Poland owed the West $27 billion. This year alone, it needs to repay more than $7 billion in principal and interest, accounting for almost 80% of the total exports in the same year. Polish citizens owe the West an average of $570.
③ The proportion of economic structure is unbalanced, and agriculture has been neglected for a long time. In 1960s and 1970s, industrial investment in Poland was as high as 38-42%, while agricultural investment decreased from 17.4% to 16%. In terms of industrial structure, Poland attaches importance to processing and ignores the fuel and raw material industries; In the agricultural structure, we attach importance to animal husbandry and neglect planting.
④ Promote welfare growth. From 1970-79, the total industrial output value of Poland increased by 80%, while the nominal wages of employees increased by 93%. Excessive bonuses and various additional wages issued by large factories and enterprises have aggravated inflation. In order to stimulate the development of agriculture, the government raised the purchase price of agricultural products several times during the period of 10, and made up for the increase of consumer goods by increasing subsidies. 197 1 annual subsidy17 billion zlotys, 1980 as high as17 billion zlotys, accounting for 40% of the national budget expenditure.
The economic crisis in 1980s quickly evolved into a protracted social and political crisis. 19811kloc-0/8 At the Fourth Plenary Session of the Ninth Central Committee, Jaruzelski, who advocated a tougher policy, took over as the first secretary. 19811213 Poland declared a "state of war" and imposed martial law. [ 14]
Although there was no major turmoil in Poland after martial law, the root cause of the crisis has not been eliminated. Jaruzelski has narrowed the scope of mandatory planning in the economy and expanded the autonomy of enterprises; Enterprises can independently formulate business plans, implement independent economic accounting and be responsible for their own profits and losses; While raising the price, give employees appropriate subsidies; Ensure the long-term existence of individual economy. 1From June to July, 1986, the Polish United Labor Party held its 10th Congress, proposing that Poland is currently in the final stage of transition from a capitalist society to a socialist society, and passed the Polish United Labor Party Law. Social task plan 1986- 1990 >: > But the passive situation of economic difficulties has not changed. 1988, the economic situation deteriorated again and then the political crisis broke out again.
Abortion in Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia
During novotny's tenure as First Secretary (1958- 1959), the Czech Republic carried out its first economic reform. This reform mainly aimed at the problem that the economic system was too centralized and the economic benefits declined at that time, reorganized the industrial management institutions, merged more than 1000 enterprises into more than 380 economic units, reduced the mandatory plans issued by the state, and expanded the autonomy of enterprises. However, the economic situation has not improved greatly. It was not until 1966 that agriculture reached the pre-war level of 1936. There are some problems in industry, such as aggressive indicators, unbalanced proportion and slow growth rate. Novotny believes that this is related to improper reform and the restoration of the economic management system before the reform.
The call for reform rekindled in 1965. From 1965- 1968, especially 1968, the Czech Republic carried out what the west called the Prague Spring. 1965 65438+ October Jie * * * The Central Committee passed the> resolution, and it was piloted in enterprises nationwide1/kloc-0. 1966 In April, the Czech Central Committee announced the> resolution. 1967 the principle of the new system began to be tried out in various departments of the national economy: announcing the material distribution plan to meet the needs of the market; Divide 384 production economic units into 90 completely independent production economic units by specialty; Reform the price system from a single state price to a fixed price, a maximum price and a free price; Allow enterprises to enter the foreign trade market; Reform the wage system and remove the restrictions on individual wages and total unit wages. After Khrushchev stepped down, novotny and others took an obstructionist and restrictive attitude towards the reform. [ 15]
1967 September, 10/0 February and 12 February, the Czech Central Committee held its 9th, 10 and165438th plenary meetings. At the meeting, the reformists headed by dubcek sharply criticized Novotny for obstructing the reform and accused Novotny of mechanically promoting the reform. Politically undemocratic; No economic reform; Not independent in foreign relations, demanding that novotny step down. 1968 1, the Czech * * * Central Plenary Session dismissed novotny as the first secretary and elected dubcek as the first secretary. [ 16]
1From March 28th to April 5th, 968, dubcek presided over the Czech Central Plenary Session, reorganized the Central Presidium and Secretariat, purged the conservatives, and the plenary session adopted & gt, announcing "the intention to set out to build a new, very democratic socialist society in line with Czechoslovakia". Economically, the program advocates: ① carrying out economic reform, implementing a new management system, expanding the autonomy of economic institutions, and giving full play to the enthusiasm of enterprises; (2) Establish workers' committees and implement democratic management. The workers' committee has the right to appoint managers and decide on major issues such as profit distribution and social welfare of enterprises; (3) extensive use of advanced science and technology to improve social labor productivity and production profit rate; (4) restoring the role of market economy; ⑤ Cancel the monopoly of foreign trade. [17] The combination of> economic reform and political reform has reflected the strong aspirations of the broad masses of people and won wide support from all walks of life, thus leading to the vivid situation of Prague Spring.
The guiding ideology of dubcek's economic reform in Czech Republic is as follows: ① In terms of the relationship between planning and market, it advocates the implementation of a planned market economy, in which the central government formulates a long-term guiding plan for economic development, the market plays a short-term adjustment role, and the price of free competition is implemented as much as possible; (2) Financially, taxes will be used instead of profits; ③ In terms of income distribution, enterprises can freely control after-tax distribution; (3) Enterprise autonomy, enterprise autonomy, separation of party and government, and decentralization of production decision-making power to enterprises. The invasion of Soviet troops and eastern European countries completely interrupted the Czech reform process. It brought Czechoslovakia back to the rigid era and brought extremely serious sequelae.
Romania, Bulgaria and the Democratic Republic of Germany in Eastern Europe also carried out some reform explorations in the 1950s and 1960s, but later they either just talked but did not do it, or waited and saw. As for Albania, it prides itself on being the only socialist model, and it just stands still. [