Confucius (from September 28th, 55 1 year to April 28th, 479, AD 1 1 year) was born in the late Spring and Autumn Period in Luhan. Confucius takes "benevolence" as the core of his thought, which means "love". Put forward the arguments of "don't do to others what you don't want others to do to you" and "don't do to others what you don't want others to do to you", advocate the principle of "loyalty and forgiveness", and think that the implementation of "benevolent policy" should be based on "courtesy": "self-denial, courtesy is benevolence" They are skeptical about the religious superstition of ghosts and gods since the Yin and Zhou Dynasties, and think that "I don't know my life, I can't be a ghost" Advocate the atmosphere of teaching in private schools, advocate teaching students in accordance with their aptitude, "teach without distinction", "never tire of learning, never tire of teaching", and emphasize that "a gentleman learns to love others, while a villain learns to learn easily". Politically, he put forward the idea of "correcting the name", thinking that "Jun Jun, minister, father and son" should be worthy of the name, and put forward the view of "not suffering from poverty, suffering from inequality". Since the Western Han Dynasty, Confucius' theory has become the cultural orthodoxy of feudal society for more than two thousand years, with far-reaching influence. Mencius (372 BC-289 BC) (born in the fourth year of the reign of King Zhou and died in the twenty-sixth year), Han nationality, was born in Zoucheng, Shandong. The name Yu Zi. Mencius inherited and developed Confucius' thought of ruling by virtue, and developed it into the theory of benevolent governance, which became the core of his political thought. He applied the principles of "pro" and "long" to politics, eased class contradictions and safeguarded the long-term interests of the feudal ruling class. Zhuangzi (about 369-286 BC) was born in Song Dynasty (now Mengcheng County, Anhui Province, northeast of Shangqiu City, Henan Province) during the Warring States Period. 1. Personal feelings can be judged indirectly. The article "Zhuangzi Qiushui" records a debate between two old friends, Zhuang Zhou and Hui Shi, when they were walking: "Zhuangzi and Keiko are swimming in Haoliang. Zhuangzi said, "It's fun to have a long fish. Keiko said: The child is not a fish, but he knows the happiness of fish. Zhuangzi said, "I'm not my son, so I don't know the joy of fish? "Zhuangzi's first sentence is so common that primary school students can write such a sentence:" The bird is singing happily. Keiko found it unusual and asked a wonderful question: "You are not a fish, how do you know that fish is happy?" "Happiness is an inner feeling, beyond our observation. How do we feel the happiness of others and how do we prove it? This is an epistemological question. Zhuangzi's answer is also wonderful. He used the reduction to absurdity: "If the feelings between different individuals are completely imperceptible, then you are not me. How do you know I don't know the happiness of fish? "Therefore, if you think that the feelings of other individuals are completely imperceptible, it will make the debate impossible. This is a negative answer, and Zhuangzi has actually given a positive answer, that is, the first sentence, Zhuangzi saw the fish "travel calmly", so he thought the fish was happy. If we see fish killed in the vegetable market, and they are tumbling with all their strength, we will also think that fish are in pain and fear at this time, because the instinct to escape death is the same as that of human beings. 2. Personal feelings cannot be directly judged. However, this judgment is indirect. A fish may also have inner pain, but it seems to be "leisurely". Just as children sometimes pretend to be in pain to gain sympathy and love from adults. The actors in movies and TV plays are also so miserable. For personal feelings, others cannot make a clear judgment. The difficulty of judging personal feelings directly lies in that the object of personal feelings is inside, not outside. If the object of our discussion is in a foreign country, for example, "This flower is red", others can judge whether this flower is red or not. When the object of discussion is in your heart, such as "I am in pain", "I am happy" and "I know this flower is red" (note that it is different from the previous sentence), these are my own words about my inner object, and others can't directly observe and judge your "pain", "happiness" and "know". From the perspective of Buddhism, our knowledge comes from six aspects: the six senses of "eyes, ears, nose and tongue" can distinguish six realms of "color, sound, fragrance and touch" according to the six senses of "eyes, ears, nose and tongue". The "color, sound, fragrance and touch" in front of the five realms are generally external realms. When discussing these five realms, others can judge. The final state of "Fa" is in my heart. I can judge and speak, but outsiders can't judge directly. 3. "Essential intuition" is a private feeling. Realists tend to think that there is generality behind individuals, while nominalists tend to think that words are agreed and there is no generality behind them. A theory often has both realism and nominalism. It seems inappropriate to simply label a theory as "realism" or "nominalism". Perhaps, we can sort the theories according to the degree of "reality" and say that one theory is more "realistic" than the other, provided that this theory is more inclined to "realism". Phenomenology is more unreal than Descartes' "I think, therefore I am". Phenomenology can be said to be more "real" than Buddhist epistemology. The "reality" difference of each theory often lies in the difference of the personal feelings of the theoretical proponents. Take the "essential intuition" of phenomenology as an example. Husserl believes that from the specific red, it can be intuitive to the general red. His "essential intuition" comes from the reflection on his internal cognitive style. This is also a personal feeling. The object of discussion is in the heart, and everyone can only ask themselves if they can be "intuitive in nature". Some people accept it when they think they have "essential intuition" Some people deny "essential intuition" without feeling. In principle, there is no need for these two kinds of people to argue. The difference of their views lies in their personal feelings, and they can't convince each other through analysis and reasoning. Everyone can only ask himself whether he accepts "essential intuition" by reflecting on his inner cognitive activities. The more you focus on the theory of personal feelings, the more difficult it is to test. The object of scientific research is mainly the outside world, rarely involving personal feelings, so scientific theory is easy to test, just like "this flower is red", and everyone can test and judge and accept this sentence. Therefore, science is public. The religious field focuses on personal feelings, and religion tells us that only by doing good can we get peace of mind. This kind of peace of mind is difficult for others to test. If a person drinks water, he knows a lot about water. Therefore, religion is more private. Mozi, the founder of Mohism in pre-Qin China. China was a famous thinker, scientist and human rights activist during the Warring States Period. (about 479 BC ~ 38 BC1year). He once put forward the views of "universal love" and "non-aggression". Mozi's theory and thought mainly include the following points: ① Love without attacking. The so-called universal love means equality and fraternity. Mozi asked monarchs, ministers, fathers and sons and brothers to love each other on the basis of equality. "Love yourself if you love yourself", Mozi believes that the phenomenon of being strong against the weak, rich against the poor, and arrogant is caused by people all over the world not loving each other. The ghost of Tian Zhiming. Advocating ghosts and gods is a major feature of Mozi's thought. Mozi believes that heaven has ambition-to love all the people in the world. Because "people, regardless of age, are just ministers of heaven" and "heaven loves people deeply", if a monarch violates God's will, he will be punished by heaven, otherwise, he will be rewarded by heaven. Mozi not only believes in the existence of ghosts and gods, but also thinks that they will reward the good and punish the evil for the monarchs or nobles on earth. The innate human rights and the thought of restricting monarchs in Mozi's religious philosophy are one of the highlights in Mozi's philosophy. ③ Shangxian County, Shang Tong. Shang Tong asked the people and the Emperor to keep pace, unite as one, and practice just politics. Sages include those who choose sages as officials and those who choose sages as emperors. Mozi believes that the monarch must elect the sages in the country, and the people should obey the monarch in public management. Mozi asked the above to know the situation, because only in this way can we reward good and punish evil. Mozi asked the monarch to use Shang Xian, that is, to appoint the virtuous and get rid of the corrupt. Mozi attached great importance to Shang Xian and thought that Shang Xian was the foundation of politics. He especially opposed the monarch's use of flesh and blood relatives, but ignored the origin of saints, and put forward the view that "officials are impermanent and expensive, and the people have no end." (4) frugal burial. Thrift is a point that Mohist school emphasizes very much. They criticized the extravagance and waste of monarchs and nobles, especially against the custom of long funeral and heavy burial valued by Confucianism. People think that monarchs and nobles should live a clean and thrifty life like Dayu in ancient times. Mozi asked Mohism to practice in this respect. Xunzi (former 313-former 238) was a famous Qing, and he was renamed after avoiding Emperor Gaozu. During the Warring States Period, Zhao belonged to Yi (now Anze, Shanxi). Xunzi's thought is biased towards experience and personnel, based on social context, attaching importance to social order, opposing mysticism and attaching importance to human efforts. Confucius' central idea is "benevolence", Mencius' central idea is "righteousness", and Xunzi put forward "courtesy" after them, attaching importance to people's behavior norms in society. Confucius was regarded as a saint, but he opposed the philosophy of "Meng Si School" headed by Mencius and Zisi, and thought that Zi Gong and himself were the scholars who inherited Confucius' thoughts. Xunzi believes that people are born to satisfy their desires, and there will be disputes if they are not satisfied. Therefore, he advocates that human nature is evil, and it is necessary to "turn nature into falsehood" by the enlightenment of the holy king and etiquette to enhance his personality.