"Fanka" was written in 1886. It reflects that during the reign of Tsar Nicholas III, countless bankrupt farmers were forced to move to cities to make a living. They suffered from exploitation, and even children were not immune. There were two young apprentices in the Chekhov family's small grocery store, and they were often abused by their father. He has known about apprentice life since he was a child and sympathized with the unfortunate fate of young apprentices. Therefore, the novel "Fanka" is real and touching, and allows us to see the tragic life of the poor working people in the old Russian era.
This text reflects the tragic fate of poor children in Russian society under the rule of the Tsar through Vanka's letter to his grandfather, and reveals the darkness of the social system at that time. The article is narrated according to the process of writing the letter. It begins to narrate that on Christmas Eve, Fanka took advantage of the opportunity of the boss, the landlady and the guys to go to the church to worship, and secretly wrote a letter to his grandfather; then, through the letter, he confided to his grandfather the unbearable hardships he suffered as an apprentice in the shoe shop. Living a miserable life, he repeatedly begged his grandfather to take him away from here and return to the countryside, and recalled his life with his grandfather; in the end, he confessed that Fanka stuffed the letter into the mailbox without writing the address and name of the recipient clearly. In the sweet dream, I saw my grandfather reading his letter. The expression characteristics of this article mainly include two aspects. First, it talks about Fanka's tragic experience, which consists of three parts: the author's narration, Fanka's letter and his memories in the process of writing...
The novel "Fanka" was written by a famous Russian writer Chekhov was written in 1886, during the darkest period of the Russian Tsar's rule. The people were living a miserable life. Countless bankrupt farmers were forced to move to the cities to make a living. They were deeply exploited, and even children were not immune. Chekov witnessed his father's abuse of the apprentice in his father's grocery store and sympathized with the apprentice's fate.
"Fanka" is selected from a short story by the famous Russian writer Chekhov. Chekhov was a Russian critical realist writer who lived during the darkest and most brutal era of the Russian Czarist rule. The novel was written in 1886. It reflects the darkest era under the Tsarist rule. At that time, countless bankrupt farmers were forced to move to cities to make a living. They suffered from exploitation, and even children were not immune. Through Vanka's letter to his grandfather, Chekhov wrote about the tragic experience of the apprentices, indicted the dark rule of Tsarist Russia, and revealed from one side the darkness of the Tsarist system and the evils of the society at that time. "Fanka" is the epitome of thousands of Russian children.
Chekhov, a great Russian critical realist writer at the end of the 19th century, a master of humorous satire with timeless taste and sharp writing, a master of short stories and a famous playwright. With his outstanding talent for satirical humor, he added two immortal artistic images to the gallery of world literary figures. His famous saying "Simplicity is the sister of genius" has also become a motto pursued by later writers.
His novels are short and concise, simple and simple, with compact structure, vivid plots, humorous writing style, bright language, full of musical rhythm and profound meaning. He was good at discovering people and events of typical significance from daily life, making artistic summaries through humorous and ridiculous plots, and creating a complete typical image to reflect the Russian society at that time. His representative works "The Chameleon" and "The Man in the Trap" can be called exquisite and perfect artistic treasures in the history of Russian literature. The former has become synonymous with those who adapt to the wind, are good at disguise, and opportunistic; the latter has become the symbol of those who are conservative, timid, and afraid of change. Symbol symbolism.
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Chekhov, (1860～1904)
The great Russian critical realist writer at the end of the 19th century, a master of humor and satire with meaningful taste and sharp writing style , a master of short stories and a famous playwright.
Chekhov was born in a philistine family. After his father's grocery store went bankrupt, he worked as a tutor to finish high school. In 1879, he entered Moscow University to study medicine. After graduating in 1884, he practiced medicine and began literary creation.
Most of his early works were short stories, such as "The Fat Man and the Thin Man" (1883), "The Death of a Civil Servant" (1883), "Trouble" (1886), (Wanka) (1886) , reproduces the misfortune and weakness of the "little people", the miserable life of the working people and the vulgarity of the small citizens. In "Chameleon" and "Sergeant Prishibeev" (1885), the author whipped the slaves who loyally maintained the tyranny and their arrogant, violent and ugly faces, revealing the reactionary spiritual characteristics of the dark ages. In 1890, after he visited Sakhalin, a place where political prisoners were exiled, he created works that expressed major social issues, such as "The Sixth Ward" (1892), which violently criticized the tyranny of the Tsar. This novel made Lenin even more excited after reading it. Very shaken. "The House with an Attic" (1896) exposed the destruction of people's youth, talent, and happiness by Tsarist Russian society, and satirized the futility of the reformist activities of the liberal Zemstvos.
"Peasants" (1897) very realistically describes the extremely poor living conditions of farmers in the 1980s and 1990s, showing his concern and sympathy for the tragic fate of farmers, while "In the Canyon" exposes the vicious exploitation of rich peasants and reflects the reality of capital. The penetration of socialism into the countryside shows that the author included the performance of class struggle in Russian society as the theme of his creation. In "The Bride" (1903), he believed that the old system must perish and the new "life will come sooner or later!"
Chekhov later turned to drama creation. His main works include "Ivanov" (1887), "The Seagull" (1896), "Uncle Vanya" (1896), "Three Sisters" (1901), and The Cherry Orchard. (1903), all of which tortuously reflected the anguish and pursuit of some petty bourgeois intellectuals on the eve of the 1905 Russian Revolution. His plays contain a strong lyrical flavor and rich subtext, which are endlessly memorable. Although the story in the script is based on daily life, the plot is simple and the progress is smooth, it is full of profound symbolic significance.
His novels are short and concise, simple and simple, with compact structure, vivid plots, humorous writing style, bright language, full of musical rhythm and profound meaning. He was good at discovering people and events of typical significance from daily life, making artistic summaries through humorous and ridiculous plots, and creating a complete typical image to reflect the Russian society at that time. His representative works "The Chameleon" and "The Man in the Trap" can be called exquisite and perfect artistic treasures in the history of Russian literature. The former has become synonymous with those who adapt to the wind, are good at disguise, and opportunistic; the latter has become the symbol of those who are conservative, timid, and afraid of change. Symbol symbolism.
With his outstanding talent for satirical humor, Chekhov added two immortal artistic images to the gallery of world literary figures. His famous saying "Simplicity is the sister of genius" has also become a motto pursued by later writers.
Chekhov had beautiful feelings for the Chinese people and once asked Gorky to visit China with him, but his wish failed due to a long illness. He died on July 15, 1904 due to worsening lung disease.
First lesson
Teaching objectives:
1. Learn 10 new words and recognize the 4 words "dip, poke, skim, and drunk". Able to read and write the following words correctly: cabinet, rusty, smoothed, fur coat, grabbed, gruel, caught, address, mailbox, heated kang, Christmas.
Teaching process:
1. Write the topic on the blackboard and solve it.
1． Questions written on the blackboard and read together.
"Fanka" is a character in the story. This article is based on the names of the characters in the story.
2. Introducing the writer of this article.
The author of this article is Chekhov. He is a famous Russian writer. Born in 1860 and died in 1904. He was born into a family of small businessmen and entered Moscow University to study medicine in 1879. I worked as a store clerk and as a doctor. He lived in the late 19th century, during the darkest years of the Tsar's rule in Russia. Social unrest. His works ruthlessly exposed the irrational social system under the tsarist rule and the evils of capitalist society.
3. Introduce the writing background of "Fanka".
"Fanka" was written in 1886. It reflects that during the reign of Tsar Nicholas III, countless bankrupt farmers were forced to move to cities to make a living. They suffered from exploitation, and even children were not immune. There were two young apprentices in the Chekhov family's small grocery store, and they were often abused by their father. He has known about apprentice life since he was a child and sympathized with the unfortunate fate of young apprentices. Therefore, the novel "Fanka" is real and touching, and allows us to see the tragic life of the poor working people in the old Russian era.
This cat is not afraid of boiling water2009-08-17 12:36:36
Fanka
The famous Russian writer Anton Pavlovich· Chekhov's novels.
"Fanka" was written in 1886. It reflects that during the reign of Tsar Nicholas III, countless bankrupt farmers were forced to move to cities to make a living. They suffered from exploitation, and even children were not immune. There were two young apprentices in Chekhov's grocery store, who were often abused by their father. He had known about apprentice life since he was a child and sympathized with the unfortunate fate of young apprentices. Therefore, the novel "Fanka" was written in a real and touching way, allowing us to see the tragic life of the working people in the old Russian era.
The European Order Established by German Prime Minister Bismarck
On Bismarck’s Diplomacy During the Bulgarian Crisis
In the five years after the Berlin Conference, German Prime Minister Bismarck established a Including the complex alliance system of Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy,
Romania and other countries, Europe's international politics was temporarily dominated by the Bismarck Alliance, and Berlin became the center of Europe's diplomatic stage. . The Bulgarian crisis that broke out in 1885 brought the Bismarck Alliance to the brink of collapse. This article intends to
explore the diplomacy and international environment of the European powers in the late 19th century based on the fierce diplomatic competition among the major European powers during the crisis
>
Certain features.
(1)
After the Franco-Prussian War, a unified and powerful Germany emerged in Europe and completed a revolutionary transformation of the European international political environment.
At the same time, But it created a German problem that has troubled the world for a century: the contradiction between Germany's natural advantages and other European countries' failure to accept this advantage. 1 The defeat not only caused France to lose Alsace and Lorraine, depriving it of its dominant position on the European continent, but also greatly worsened its geopolitical environment. France thus became an irreconcilable country for Germany. It is difficult for France to deal with Germany with its own strength. Whether it is to protect itself or prepare for revenge, France needs to form an alliance with any country that is hostile to Germany. This makes crises involving Germany intensified and difficult to localize. Therefore, it also limits the basic direction of German diplomacy. In Bismarck's view, isolating France, maintaining the European status quo, and ensuring Germany's security were one and the same. The international environment Bismarck faced was extremely complex: in order to isolate France, he had to maintain the conservative alliance of the three monarchical powers of Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany. To this end, he also needed to exert influence on the development of Russian-Austrian relations. Relations that are so close
that abandoning Germany, or conflict over the Balkans, would damage Germany's diplomatic standing in Europe. While regarding Russia-Germany friendship as the cornerstone of German diplomacy, he cannot offend Britain, which is in sharp opposition to Russia in the Near East and Central Asia. 18
The Near Eastern crisis from 1875 to 1878 reflected the limitations of Bismarck’s policy relative to the historical environment: the intensification of conflicts between Russia and Austria made it difficult for Bismarck to avoid the Russian-Austrian conflict for a long time. the question of making a choice. Bismarck temporarily found a way out through the German-Austrian Alliance in 1879. The true destination of the alliance was the Alliance of the Three Emperors of Russia, Austria, and Germany formed in June 1881, which allowed Germany to continue to maintain
the containment of Russia-Austria relations and its mediating position between the two.
In September 1885, a revolution broke out in the Turkish province of East Rumelia and it announced its merger with the Principality of Bulgaria. Tsar Alexander III, who had always regarded himself as the protector of Bulgaria, could not tolerate the unification of the two territories through the hands of Grand Duke Alexander who did not obey his orders, thereby consolidating the Grand Duke's power in Bulgaria. domestic status. Russia tried to force Bulgaria to cancel the merger through coordination among major powers, but the fait accompli of Bulgaria's unification is irreversible. Russia's Bulgarian policy faces unprecedented failure,
A new crisis is brewing in the Balkans.
In January 1886, the fanatical chauvinist Boulanger took office as the French Minister of War, setting off a frenzy in France demanding revenge against Germany.
German-French relations suddenly became tense.
Two crises occurred at the same time, and the Bismarck Alliance faced a severe test. At the same time, the Alliance of the Three Emperors, which Bismarck regarded as the basis of German diplomacy, was about to expire, and there was no hope of renewal. There is a possibility that the international situation will be completely out of control, and Bismarck's dream of a pincer attack from East and West is about to become a reality. If Germany adopts a policy of supporting Austria-Hungary in the Russian-Austro-Balkan competition,
it will suffer the consequences of the breakdown of Russian-German relations and thus provide France with potential allies. Under the circumstances at the time, the possibility of abandoning Austria-Hungary was completely ruled out.
Preserving the independence and great power status of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was an important part of Bismarck's European order. Once Austria-Hungary disintegrates under external pressure, it will not only endanger the balance of power in Europe and make German diplomacy lose room for maneuver, but will also break the delicate political balance within the German Empire. 2
The Bulgarian crisis of 1885-1887 reopened the Eastern Question and created the prospect of confrontation between Russia and Austria. Russian-Turkish War
The Russian army fought bloody battles, and two hundred thousand soldiers died on the battlefield, but what they reaped was a bitter pill that was hard to swallow. In September 1886, Alexander the Great was forced to abdicate under Russian pressure. In November, the tsar's envoy Korbas failed to force the Bulgarian regency to nominate Russia's favorite candidate for the Grand Duke, but failed. Russia and Bulgaria severed diplomatic relations. Russia's influence in Bulgaria was completely lost.
The emperor's "dignity" has been trampled to the utmost extent. The Balkans have formed a critical situation in which the Russian army is about to invade and trigger a conflict between the great powers.
Once Russia invades Bulgaria, it is bound to control Romania. By then Hungary will be surrounded on three sides by Russian Poland, Romania
and Bulgaria. Austria-Hungary's Danube lifeline may also be cut off. Maintaining power and influence in the Balkans is not only a symbol of the status of Austria-Hungary as a great power, but also the survival of the empire. On November 13, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Karnoki delivered a speech in the Hungarian Parliament: Russia has no right to occupy Bulgaria and decide its fate alone, otherwise it will lead to war. Russian public opinion is in an uproar, and it is generally believed that Russian-Austrian coordination has lost its meaning. The Russian military and the Pan-Slavic faction are considering launching a military attack on Austria-Hungary.
The most direct purpose of the Bismarck Alliance is to restrain Russia and Austria and prevent conflicts between the two countries. His basic strategy at this time was to implement two-way suppression on the two countries and urge the two countries to resolve their differences within the framework of the Three Emperors Alliance. In response to the strong policy that Austria-Hungary might adopt under the instigation of Britain, he repeatedly warned that Bulgaria was Russia's sphere of influence, and the German-Austrian alliance was only defensive in nature and had to help.
I'm busy looking for England. 3 Regarding Russia, he repeatedly stated that Germany is willing to support Russia's Bulgarian policy, but Austria-Hungary's status as a great power cannot be sacrificed, and the way out lies in Russia and Austria reaching a compromise on dividing the Balkan sphere of influence. 4
Bismarck acted as an "honest broker". Although he temporarily avoided the issue of choosing between Russia and Austria, it implied
the danger of alienating both countries at the same time. Austria-Hungary couldn't help but ask: "What value does the German-Austrian Alliance have?" "Germany has two allies, and Austria-Hungary only has half." 5 If we talk about the conclusion of the German-Austrian Alliance in 1879 If it intensifies Russia's sense of isolation and forces it to return to the track of alliance with Germany and Austria, it will only deepen Russia's hostility at this time. In November 1886, when the Tsar met with the new French ambassador to Russia, Lablay, he said: Russia hopes that France will be strong, and the two countries need to work side by side to overcome the difficulties.
6 This statement was on the one hand the result of the failure of the Korbas mission and the deepening frustration of the tsar, and it was also a response to the speech of the Carnogian Congress
. If we want to solve the Bulgarian problem according to Russia's wishes, we must overcome Austria's obstruction. Austria-Hungary's strength does not pose a threat. The key is the German-Austrian alliance. If Russia wants to launch a war against Austria-Hungary, or if Russia's threat of war has an effect, Germany's intervention must be prevented in advance. The only hope is in France. There are signs that the Russian military and Pan-Slavic factions, through the famous journalist and conservative nationalist Katokov, have exerted heavy influence on the Tsar's decision-making tendencies since the end of October.
Big impact. In order to contain Germany, the Tsar may drastically change his European policy, and the prospect of a Franco-Russian alliance is already looming.
The Bismarck alliance system is in danger of collapse. The Boulanger Movement provided a good opportunity for Bismarck to escape his predicament.
(2)
After the establishment of the Third Republic, the political situation in France has been turbulent. In the first half of the 1980s, when the Ferrie Cabinet was in power, France-Germany relations had a good period of "colonial entente". However, the issues of Alsace and Lorraine have always been wounds that are difficult to heal in the relations between the two countries. The collapse of the "colonial cabinet" of Ferrie in 1885 marked the rise of revanchism in France. The League of Patriots, a nationalist group headed by the famous poet Derulaid, had more than 100,000 members by July 1886 and became an indispensable force in French political and social life. The power of neglect. Boulanger enters the Shire. After Feresi became Minister of War in the cabinet, he became a symbol of France's revival, recovery of lost territory, and revenge against Germany. From the autumn of 1886, Franco-German relations tended to deteriorate.
Bismarck was not afraid of France's strength, even a revanchist France. Its eyes are always fixed on the east
. The complexity of the problem lies in the fact that the two crises occurred almost simultaneously. Once Germany becomes involved in the Austro-Russian Balkan conflict, it is difficult to expect the French Congress to stand idly by. At that time, Germany must face the cold reality of fighting on two fronts.
In the summer of 1886, Deroulade visited Russia and advocated an alliance between France and Russia. In June, Katokov wrote an article in "Moscow News" criticizing Foreign Minister Giles' European policy and calling for a fundamental change in Russia's diplomatic line. He pointed out that Russia had made a historic mistake by placing the abstract principle of monarchical unity above its own national interests. Russia must break free and regain freedom of action in its diplomacy. At 7 o'clock it was called 'Katokov's Attack'.
Under the circumstances at that time, there was a huge disparity in political systems between France and Russia, and there were serious differences in strategic interests and priorities. There was no possibility of an immediate alliance between the two countries.
France will not support Russia's current Balkan policy at the expense of its long-term interests in the Near East. Russia was even less likely to help France regain Alsace and Lorraine without risking upsetting the status quo and antagonizing Germany. But
If the pressure and frustration are too strong, France and Russia may form a convergence of interests in order to get out of the predicament. No one can guarantee that the two countries will not come together in the end. In January 1887, Russian special envoy Shuvalov visited Germany in order to bridge differences and repair Russian-German relations.
After that, the silence from the Russian side further confirmed Bismarck's suspicion that Russia might change its policy. Bismarck adjusted his strategy and determined to use Germany's existing diplomatic resources and developments in France to seek opportunities to reorganize Germany's diplomatic lineup.
After the Bulgarian crisis, Britain and Germany launched a fierce diplomatic competition.
Neither country is willing to take the lead in intervening and resent Russia. At the same time, both countries need to avoid being isolated in the future European diplomatic arena. If it can create a mutual check and balance between the other party and Russia, the country's diplomacy will gain unprecedented initiative. British Prime Minister Salisbury was deeply suspicious of Bismarck's intentions
He was worried that if Britain and Russia had a confrontation or conflict over the Balkan issue and became deeply involved in Balkan affairs, Bismarck would take the opportunity to break it
< p>France. Britain's strategy was to urge Austria-Hungary to serve as the anti-Russian vanguard in the Balkans, so that Germany, which had alliance obligations to Austria-Hungary, would have no way to escape. Bismarck exaggerated the tensions on the German-French border, created public opinion that war was imminent, and intimidated the French government. Don't go too far in military expansion and war preparations. Being an enemy of Germany will not bring good results. At the same time, this is used to show Britain, Austria and Russia that Germany must deal with the Franco-German crisis with all its strengthand has no time to look eastward. The Balkan crisis can only be solved by those countries with vital interests in the region themselves
Solved. 8
The Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy, concluded in 1882, was about to expire in May 1887, and the contracting parties were not very interested in the alliance. But as the Franco-German crisis and the Bulgarian crisis occurred simultaneously, Italy's importance in Bismarck's mind increased significantly. Bismarck used the opportunity of alliance renewal in February 1887 to strengthen the unity within the Triple Alliance at the expense of supporting Italy's expansion policy in North Africa and prevent hostile countries from attacking Italy. At the same time, it won a safe and stable rear for Austria-Hungary to deal with Russia.
What is more meaningful is that this will use Italy as a bridge to establish a relationship between Britain and the three countries that share the same interests with Italy on colonial issues and maintain close cooperation
The connections between the Allied countries created the conditions.
At that time, there were sharp conflicts between Britain and France due to the Egyptian issue that arose after Britain unilaterally occupied Egypt in 1882. Boulanger
The jingoistic clamor of the movement was also directed against Britain. If Britain can win the support of the Triple Alliance countries on the Egyptian issue, it will greatly strengthen its position in negotiations with France. If Britain can be prompted to adopt a policy of resolutely maintaining the status quo in the Balkans
and mobilize forces sufficient to contain France and Russia in the Near East, Austria-Hungary's security will be guaranteed, and Germany will be able to< /p>
It can avoid being directly involved in Near Eastern affairs and colliding with Russia. In order to put pressure on Britain, Bismarck said: If Germany looks after France on the continent, Britain and Italy will gain freedom of action. Britain and Italy will jointly contain France in North Africa, and cooperate with Austria-Hungary to attack France in the Near East.
By dealing with Russia together, the balance of power and peace in Europe can be preserved. But if Britain does not participate in European politics, it will inevitably fall into isolation
And Germany will have no reason to oppose France's expansion in North Africa and Russia's expansion in the Near East. 9 Under Bismarck's instigation
, Britain and Italy exchanged notes in February 1887. In March, Austria-Hungary also joined in the form of a note. The three countries entered into the "First Mediterranean"
Agreement, committing to jointly maintain the status quo of the Mediterranean Sea.
After the Mediterranean Alliance was formed, the French government further realized the unreality and danger of its alliance policy with Russia. The more urgent France's desire for alliance is, the higher Russia's asking price will be. Once it cannot meet Russia's requirements, it will incur unnecessary resentment. What's more, it will induce Germany to launch a "preventive" war. 10If France supports Russia's Bulgarian policy, it will need to bear the consequences of confrontation with all European countries. 11 The French government must take the initiative to ease Franco-German relations to avoid falling into the diplomatic trap set by Bismarck. In May, the French government dismissed Boulanger, and the Franco-German crisis tended to ease.
(3)
Germany is located in Central Europe, facing the sea on one side and surrounded on three sides. An active and effective Eastern policy is the cornerstone of German diplomacy. If
Germany and Russia are in confrontation for a long time, German diplomacy will be a dead end. On the contrary, Germany will be able to maneuver freely between the East and the West, with sufficient advance and retreat. In Bismarck's eyes, isolating France and uniting Russia were two sides of the same problem. After the Bulgarian crisis
Bismarck encouraged Russia to pursue a forward policy in the Balkans on the one hand, and on the other hand he used this to mobilize the Mediterranean coalition that resisted Russian expansion
. At the same time, it proved the value of German friendship to Russia, which felt deeply isolated. 12
Russian Foreign Minister Giles believes that whether it is to ensure the security of Russia's Black Sea region or to solve the Bulgarian issue, Russia
needs to retain the Three Emperors Alliance of Russia, Germany and Austria, at least to maintain its relationship with Germany. friendly cooperation. At present, an alliance between France and Russia is not good for Russia
It is impossible for France to form an alliance with Russia. If Russia loses Germany, it will mean complete isolation.
13 As for the attitude of Tsar Alexander III, as German Ambassador to St. Petersburg Schweinitz pointed out at the time: "The Tsar must maintain relations with Germany from the needs of foreign policy. To unite, in order to comply with public opinion and domestic stability, he must show his hatred for Germany in public. ”14
Katokov’s editorial in March was deeply felt. This article stung the Tsar and put him in a very embarrassing situation. The article disclosed the secret of the Three Emperors Alliance and violently criticized it. This forced the Tsar to either abandon his alliance with Germany or publicly declare his support for the Alliance of Three Emperors, which was exactly the outcome the Tsar wanted to avoid. The Tsar was furious and punished Katokov.
The reduction of Katokov’s influence reflects the consolidation of Gilles’ position.
In view of the Tsar's categorical refusal to renew the treaty with Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany reopened negotiations in Berlin in May, preparing to replace the original Three Emperors Alliance with a Russian-German bilateral agreement
. When discussing the terms of neutrality, Bismarck tried to induce Russia to agree to Germany's conditional neutrality in the event of a Russian-Austrian conflict by fully supporting Russia's Near East policy. For this reason, Bismarck read out the text of the 1879 German-Austrian Alliance Treaty to the Russian negotiators, in order to show that Germany had no intention to assume obligations that were contrary to the content of the German-Austrian Alliance Treaty.
On June 18, 1887, Russia and Germany signed a new treaty, the " Reinsurance Treaty. In Bismarck's view, although the treaty failed to ensure Russia's unconditional neutrality in the event of a Russian-German conflict
given the different attitudes of France and Germany towards the status quo since 1871, the alliance France needed must< /p>
It must be offensive, and the "Reinsurance Treaty" at least excludes this possibility. If France cannot win Russia's support in advance, it will be impossible to challenge Germany on its own. The status quo, peace, and German security were guaranteed.
By echoing the previous "German-Austrian Alliance Treaty" through the "Reinsurance Treaty", Bismarck re-established a two-way suppression of Germany and Austria. Bismarck used this to show Russia and Austria that Germany would always stand with the attacked party and fight against aggression together.
Whoever destroys European peace is Germany's enemy. However, Bismarck also had to face another danger. If Russia provoked Austria-Hungary to take the lead in attacking, how would Germany deal with it? 15The internal struggle in Russia over the signing of the Reinsurance Treaty, the vacillation of the Tsar's position, and Russia's endless demands on Germany on the Bulgarian issue after the signing of the treaty made Bi
Bismarck discounted the value of the treaty. His faith in the Tsar and in German-Russian friendship was irrevocably shaken. 16
In July 1887, Ferdinand of Coburg was elected Grand Duke of Bulgaria against the wishes of the Tsar, and the possibility of Russia resorting to force
increased. The Russian press was filled with invective against Germany. In August, Derulaid took the opportunity of attending Kattokov's funeral to visit Russia again. Bismarck was deeply worried about the current situation. Since Russia is no longer reliable, Germany must find another way out just in case. 17
In May, France and Russia jointly forced Sudan to abandon the plan reached by British Special Envoy Wolff with Turkey on the withdrawal of British troops from Egypt
The trend of French-Russian cooperation has aroused the vigilance of the British and Germans. Salisbury was worried that if Austria-Hungary was forced to compromise with Russia due to lack of assistance, it might return to the isolated and passive situation that was extremely unfavorable to Britain during the Three Emperors Alliance.
18 Bismarck took advantage of the situation and sent the text of the "German-Austrian Alliance Treaty" to London, and wrote a letter to Salisbury on November 22. The letter stated: "If the independence of Austria-Hungary is threatened by Russian aggression, or if Britain and Italy are in danger of being invaded by France, Germany will always be responsible for taking action to enter the front. policy." 19 After Britain confirmed the extent of Germany's support for Austria-Hungary, on December 12 and 16, 1887, Britain, Austria, and Italy exchanged notes and reached the "Second Sub-Mediterranean Agreement basically rules out the possibility of Russia occupying Bulgaria, or holding Sudan hostage, and controlling the Turkish Strait. If Russia provokes Austria-Hungary, it will be besieged by Britain
Austria and Italy. Against this background, Russia began to retreat. In January 1888, Russia, with the support of Germany, asked the Turkish government to declare Ferdinand's election illegal, which was boycotted by Britain, Austria and Italy. In April Türkiye met Russia's demands. Russia saved
part of its face, and the Bulgarian issue was resolved after that.
(4)
The "Reinsurance Treaty" and the "Mediterranean Agreement" created a situation of mutual restraint between Britain, Austria, Italy, France and Russia in the Near East and the Mediterranean
, and at the same time blocked the combination of France and Russia, ensuring Germany's dominant position on the European continent.
However, Bismarck's system contained great complexity and contradictions, and the equilibrium situation that was beneficial to Germany was inherently fragile. 20 His diplomacy was therefore ultimately just a stop-gap measure to delay the problem.
As a master of realpolitik, Bismarck brought the art of diplomacy to the extreme. Realpolitik contributed to the unification and consolidation of Germany, but Bismarck's obsession with realpolitik ultimately caused the reunified Germany to reap its own consequences. Although with the unification of Germany, Bismarck transformed from a destroyer of the status quo to a defender of the status quo, the situation is no longer what it used to be. Under the impact of the wave of nationalism
the principle of monarchical unity he advocated has lost its sustaining power. The naked pursuit of power has become a basic means for countries to safeguard their own security and interests, adding new unstable factors to international relations. 21 "Katokov's attack" was an ironic reply to Bismarck.
In Bismarck’s era, relations between the major powers in Europe became increasingly rigid and tense. The reunification of Germany has caused Central Europe to lose its buffering role in history. It can no longer provide a warning and compensation space for the struggle between major powers for hegemony, and it has completely changed.
Changed the power structure of Europe. 22 The looseness of the relations between major powers on which balance of power diplomacy relies is disappearing, as marked by the conclusion of the German-Austrian Alliance in 1879. In fact, it is difficult for Germany to make any other choice. Bismarck's alliance was an instinctive reflection of this change, which in turn consolidated and strengthened this trend.
Tension between major powers was the reason for the establishment of the Bismarck Alliance and a necessary condition for its maintenance. Bismarck's
diplomatic style epitomized the mentality of a combination of pride and anxiety. In order to prevent the alliance of hostile forces and establish Germany's unshakable leadership position on the European continent, it is necessary to maintain moderate tension in the relations between major powers. If relations between allies were tense, he would encourage cooperation; once they got along, he would withdraw support and create friction. However, Bismarck's strategy may win allies for Germany, but it often causes Germany to lose friends. 23 Germany at that time was essentially a status quo country. For the rising Germany, the reputation of dishonesty may be more dangerous than bellicosity. European countries' confidence and trust in Germany's policies are the prerequisite for maintaining Germany's diplomatic status. Bismarck's strategies often have the opposite effect.
As the situation in Europe becomes increasingly tense, an international environment full of hostility, suspicion and insecurity has begun to emerge.
At the same time that relations between major powers began to become rigid and tense, German policy gradually lost balance and flexibility.
In October 1886, Bismarck hinted in a letter to his son: Once Russia and Austria go to war, no matter who is the attacker, Germany will have no choice but to stand