Montesquieu 1. Montesquieu's main ideas are as follows: ① separation of the three powers and mutual checks and balances; (2) the law should embody rationality (representative works such as "The Spirit of Law" and "Persian Letters". ). Montesquieu (1689- 1755) was born in the noble La Buride estate near Bordeaux, France. Great French enlightenment thinker and jurist. Montesquieu was not only a famous thinker in the French Enlightenment in the18th century, but also one of the early scholars in modern European countries who systematically studied the ancient oriental society and legal culture. Although his works are few, they have a wide influence, especially on the spirit of law. The theory of separation of powers is the development of political theory in ancient Greece and Rome, which embodies the principle of people's sovereignty, lays the foundation for the development of modern western political and legal theory, and greatly affects Europeans' views on eastern political and legal culture. His theory of separation of powers is still used by some countries. However, due to ideological reasons, the influence of natural and historical environment on human nature, which he discussed in On the Spirit of Law, has long been regarded as ignoring class nature as the fundamental attribute of a country in shaping its national character. However, it is precisely because of this that his statement has real objective significance. The influence of natural environment and the function of geographical environment are long-term and fundamental, and will not change because of one's position or interest division. Obviously, such a great role will continue. In the study of modern economy or history, his argument perspective still has great positive significance. 2. Voltaire's main propositions: ① advocating the establishment of an enlightened monarchy relying on bourgeois power; ② Advocating natural human rights, freedom and equality; ③ Everyone is equal before the law; (4) Attacking the Catholic Church and advocating freedom of belief (Voltaire, 1694- 1778): formerly known as Fran? ois-Marie Arouet (Fran? Ois-Marie Arouet), French enlightenment thinker, writer and philosopher. Voltaire was the standard-bearer of the French bourgeois enlightenment in the18th century, and was known as "the king of ideas", "the best poet in France" and "the conscience of Europe". He advocates natural human rights, and believes that all people are born free and equal, and all people have the right to pursue survival and happiness, which is natural and inalienable. He advocates that everyone is born free and equal before the law. He once said, "I can't agree with everything you say, but I will defend your right to say it to the death." Voltaire also sharply criticized the dark rule of the Catholic Church. He compared the Pope to a biped, called the priest a "civilized villain", called Catholicism "the most shameful trap set by all cunning people" and called on "everyone to fight the appalling religious fanatics in their own way". But he is not opposed to property inequality. While opposing the monarchy, he was in favor of "enlightened autocracy", which reflected his ideological limitations. His main works are Philosophical Newsletter and Louis XIV. 3. Diderot Diderot is a French materialist philosopher, aesthetician, writer, educational theorist, a representative of the encyclopedia school in the18th century, and the editor-in-chief of the first encyclopedia in France. Diderot insists on materialist philosophy, but at the same time he has dialectical thoughts that contemporary materialists lack. Some scholars think that his materialism should be called transitional materialism. Diderot stood in the position of the third class in France, insisting that the state originated from the social contract and the power of the monarch came from the agreement of the people. He pointed out that it is the political power that can realize people's freedom and equality, and any political power must be changed. Its life, like the life of an animal, is doomed to die. Feudal autocracy will eventually disappear and be replaced by a regime suitable for human nature. 4. Rousseau's main ideas: ① natural human rights and people's sovereignty ② social contract theory (works include Social Contract Theory and On the Origin and Foundation of Human Inequality). ), ③ the legitimacy of revolution, ④ private ownership is the root of inequality, and Rousseau (Jean-jean-jacques rousseau, Jean-jean-jacques rousseau (1712-1778) is a famous French enlightenment thinker, philosopher, educator and writer. He was an ideological pioneer of the French Revolution in the18th century and one of the most outstanding representatives of the Enlightenment. Known as the defender of people's sovereignty. Among French enlightenment thinkers, Rousseau's criticism of French feudal society is the most severe and intense. Rousseau is a radical democrat, whose ideological essence and basic principle are people's sovereignty. Putting forward the idea that "sovereignty lies with the people", he believes that all rights belong to the people, and the expression and application of rights must reflect the will of the people. Governments and officials are appointed by the people, and the people have the right to appoint and replace them. They can even hold an uprising to eliminate rulers who enslave and oppress the people. This is the concept of people's sovereignty. Rousseau also emphasized "general will" and thought it was very important and citizens should accept its rule. The concrete form of "public will" is law, and the act of obeying the law is the act of freedom. Rousseau's thought became the theoretical banner of jacobins led by robespierre in the French Revolution, which had a far-reaching impact on the prosperity of bourgeois revolution in Europe and America. 5. Kant's main idea: man is the purpose. He emphasized the importance of human beings and put forward that human beings are human beings, not tools to achieve any goals. Immanuel Kant was born in1April 22nd, 724, and entered the University of Koenigsberg in 1740. From 1746, I worked as a tutor for 4 years. 1755 completed university studies, obtained the qualification of a supernumerary lecturer, and served as a lecturer 15 years. During this period, Kant became more and more famous as a teacher and writer. From 178 1, a series of great original works covering a wide range of fields were published in 9 years, which brought a revolution in philosophy and thought in a short time. Such as Critique of Pure Reason (178 1), Critique of Practical Reason (1788) and Critique of Judgment (1790). 6. Hobbes (1588- 1679), a famous early enlightenment thinker, was born in a rural pastor's family in Wiltshire, England. Smart and studious since childhood,/kloc-entered Oxford University at the age of 0/5. I have traveled in the European continent for many years, met many scientists and worked as Bacon's secretary, and my thoughts were deeply influenced by Bacon. During the British bourgeois revolution, he moved to France. Cromwell returned to England when he was in power, and his thoughts were spread (so the British bourgeois revolution was not influenced by Hobbes and other enlightenment thinkers). Hobbes represented the interests of the upper bourgeoisie during the British bourgeois revolution. He not only put forward some basic enlightenment ideas, but also had obvious feudal backward consciousness. He believes that the country is not created by God's will, but by people through social contracts. Sovereignty is not given by God, but by the people. He insists that once the ruler is authorized, the people must absolutely obey and cannot go back on their word; Therefore, he is not opposed to autocratic monarchy, and even thinks that authoritarian regimes have the right to interfere in the property of their subjects. He believes that there is no God in the world, and religion is only the product of human ignorance and fear, but he also points out that religion helps to maintain social order. Masterpiece Leviathan. 7. Locke (1632- 1704) Locke's thought was formed during the British bourgeois revolution and catered to the needs of the British bourgeoisie at that time. He revised Hobbes' thought that the purpose of founding a country by contract is to protect private property, so the state should not interfere with citizens' private property. He has a famous saying, "My hut, the wind can enter, the rain can enter, but the king can't." Locke even further believes that private property is the basis of human rights, and there is no human rights without private property. In the form of political power, he is in favor of constitutional monarchy, and advocates that the legislative power, administrative power and foreign affairs handling power of the country should belong to parliament and monarch. His idea of legislative administration and diplomatic decentralization was later inherited and developed by Montesquieu and became a modern model of legislative administration and judicial decentralization. The influence of the Enlightenment was 1, which made ideological and theoretical preparations for the bourgeoisie to gain a dominant position. 2. Fully prepared for the French Revolution. 3. Enlightened people's thoughts and shook the feudal rule. 4. Inspired people with lofty ideals in China and Japan to fight for the transformation of the old society. 5. Make the concept of democracy and harmony deeply rooted in people's hearts.