Cultural Classification H.H. Stern (1992: 208) divides culture into broad and narrow concepts according to its structure and category. Culture in a broad sense is the culture of big C, culture in a narrow sense is the culture of small C, and culture in a broad sense refers to the sum of material wealth and spiritual wealth created by human beings in the process of social and historical development. It includes three aspects: material culture, institutional culture and psychological culture. Material culture refers to all kinds of material civilizations created by human beings, including transportation, clothing, daily necessities and so on. , and it is a visible dominant culture; Institutional culture and psychological culture refer to life system, family system, social system, way of thinking, religious belief and aesthetic taste respectively, and belong to intangible recessive culture. Including literature, philosophy, politics and other aspects. In a narrow sense, culture refers to people's common social habits, such as food, clothing, housing and transportation, customs, lifestyles, behavioral norms and so on.
H?mmerli (1982) divided culture into information culture, behavior culture and achievement culture. Information culture refers to knowledge about society, geography and history. Mastered by ordinary educated native speakers; Behavioral culture refers to people's lifestyles, actual behaviors, attitudes and values. This is the most important factor for successful communication. Achievement culture refers to artistic and literary achievements, which is a traditional cultural concept.
The internal structure of culture includes the following levels: material culture, institutional culture, behavioral culture and psychological culture.
The material cultural layer is the sum of human material production activities and products, and it is a tangible cultural thing with material entities.
Institutional culture layer is a variety of social behavior norms established by human beings in social practice.
The behavioral culture layer is a behavior pattern in the form of customs and folk customs established in interpersonal communication.
Mentality culture is the subjective factors such as values, aesthetic taste and way of thinking bred by human beings in social consciousness activities, which is equivalent to the concepts of spiritual culture and social consciousness that people often say. This is the core of culture.
Some anthropologists divide culture into three levels: high culture, including philosophy, literature, art and religion; Popular culture refers to customs, etiquette and lifestyle, including food, clothing, housing, transportation and interpersonal relationships; Deep culture mainly refers to the definition of values, beauty and ugliness, time orientation, life rhythm, problem-solving methods and personal roles related to gender, class, occupation and kinship. Both elegant culture and popular culture are rooted in deep culture. The concept of a deep culture is embodied as a custom or lifestyle in popular culture and an art form or literary theme in elegant culture.
Culture is a very broad concept, and it is difficult to give it a strict and precise definition. Since the beginning of the 20th century, many philosophers, sociologists, anthropologists, historians and linguists have been trying to define the concept of culture from the perspective of their respective disciplines. However, there is no accepted and satisfactory definition so far. According to statistics, "culture" has at least 200 different definitions. The difference in people's understanding of the word "culture" is enough to explain the difficulty in defining the concept of "culture".
What is culture?
In a broad sense, it refers to the sum of material wealth and spiritual wealth created by human beings in social and historical practice. In a narrow sense, it refers to social ideology and corresponding institutions and organizations. As an ideology, culture is a reflection of the politics and economy of a certain society, and it also acts on the politics and economy of a certain society. With the emergence and development of the nation, culture is national. Every social form has its own culture, and every culture develops with the development of social material production. The continuity of the development of social material production determines that the development of culture also has continuity and historical inheritance.
Generally refers to writing ability and general knowledge: learning culture | cultural level.
The concept of culture.
Definition: There are many definitions of culture. Many sociologists and anthropologists have defined it and made statistics: in the 80 years of1871-1951,there were as many as 164 definitions of culture. Taylor, the originator of anthropology, was the first scholar to define culture in modern times.
He believes that culture is a complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, morality, laws, customs and any other talents and habits acquired as members of society. It is the total result of human efforts to adapt to the environment and improve lifestyle.
Is this reasonable? W.H. Kelly made the following criticisms:
There is something wrong with the definition of (1), and you can never list all the contents contained in the concept. Although "others" can summarize things that are not listed, it is easy to be ignored if there is no other list.
Example: Language is not listed in the definition. Language is an important part of culture.
(2) The word whole is not appropriate, and there are contradictions between cultural elements. Emphasis on the whole only highlights harmony.
(3) The culture created by human beings is not necessarily aimed at improving life, but also has destructive aspects, such as nuclear weapons.
Is this criticism appropriate?
(1) If language is included, the definition has listed the important components of culture.
(2) The word whole does not exclude contradictions, and everything is the totality of contradictions.
(3) The culture created by human beings is destructive, but it is not the original intention, but the deviation between will and reality. Culture was originally produced to adapt to and improve life, but the result is the opposite. Therefore, Mr. Zhang believes that this concept can be added with language.
David popenoe, an American sociologist, defined culture as follows from the perspective of abstract definition: First, a group or society has a common system of values and meanings, which includes the materialization of these values and meanings. People learn the culture of their society by observing and accepting the education of other members. The first two sentences of this definition sum up Taylor's first sentence. Culture is a guide to human behavior, just as instinct is to animals.
Robin Fox further pointed out that culture and instinct have the same nature:
(1) are shared by members of a certain race.
(2) Most cultural behaviors, like instinct, are subconscious and can be learned without thinking. Stimulating them will cause a specific reaction.
Because, in the process of growing up, individuals often unconsciously store the existing lifestyles and habits of society into their brains and form cultural codes. Because of these ions, people can get all kinds of actions without going through the brain, which is the same as animals being dominated by physical ability.
(3) study the day after tomorrow.
Second, the composition and socialization of culture.
1. Cultural composition:
David summed up the three elements of culture:
Symbols, definitions and values are the standards used to explain reality, decide good or bad, right or wrong: including language and symbols.
(2) Norms: the explanation of how people should think, feel and act in a particular society, including customs, morality, religion and law.
(3) Material culture-realistic and artistic man-made articles, which embody the significance of intangible culture, including machines, tools, clothes, houses, etc.
2. Cultural evolution: (discussed first)
(1) culture has promoted the development of human society.
The development of culture enables human beings to change the environment according to the favorable conditions of the environment and change their behavior to adapt to the changed environmental conditions. Before the emergence of culture, human beings could only adapt to environmental changes through biological evolution, and culture accelerated the adaptation process.
Exodus: When one kind of prey is extinct, the hunter's tactics of hunting another kind of animal will reappear.
(2) Culture promotes the biological evolution of human body.
Example: The brain is more and more developed and the hands are more and more flexible.
(3) Culture itself has become a force in the human environment, and it has become as important as the environment in scope and influence, and it is also in the process of dynamic evolution.
In the history of nomadic-settlement-small town-city-country-global economy, culture runs through it: clothes, houses, tools, commodities and technology.
Section 2 Symbols and Language
Symbol: The existence of culture depends on people's ability to create and use symbols.
1. What is a symbol? It means anything that can express something meaningfully.
Examples: words, numbers, axes and sickles.
2. The function of symbols
(1) transmit and save complex information.
(2) With the help of symbols, human beings can create culture and learn culture.
(3) Help us understand abstract concepts, such as God, justice and patriotism.
On the Basic Spirit of China Traditional Culture
The basic spirit of China's traditional culture is essentially the national spirit of the Chinese nation. There are many opinions about the basic spirit of China traditional culture. Some scholars believe that the ideological basis for the long-term development of China traditional culture can be called the basic spirit of China traditional culture, and it is the subtle internal driving force in the process of cultural development, that is, the basic idea guiding the continuous progress of national culture. The basic spirit of China's traditional culture is the basic feature of the Chinese nation's spiritual form. Therefore, (1) steel is healthy and promising; (2) Harmony and neutrality; (3) the use of respecting morality; (4) Harmony between man and nature. "These are the basic spirits of China's traditional culture." (Zhang Dainian: On the Basic Spirits of China Culture, China Cultural Studies Series 1, published by Fudan University Press. China's national spirit is basically condensed in two famous sayings of the Book of Changes, namely: "A gentleman strives for self-improvement." . "the terrain is vast, and a gentleman carries things with morality." "Self-improvement and morality are the basic spirits of China traditional culture". Although the concept of "golden mean" was widely circulated in the past, it actually failed to promote cultural development. Therefore, "The Doctrine of the Mean cannot be regarded as the basic spirit of China traditional culture". (Zhang Dainian: Cultural Tradition and National Spirit, Academic Monthly 1986No. 12. The basic spirit of China's traditional culture is also reflected in the fine tradition of replacing religion with moral education. (Zhang Dainian: China Culture and China Philosophy, included in China Culture and China Philosophy, published by Oriental Publishing House) Some scholars believe that "the fundamental spirit of China traditional culture is harmony and freedom". (Xu Siyuan: On China Culture, two issues, China Cultural Studies Series 1, published by Fudan University Press. Some scholars believe that the patriarchal hierarchy ethics, which is based on self-sufficient natural economy, family-oriented, and blood relationship as the link, is the main clue, essence and core that runs through the five levels of social production activities and productivity, social production relations, social system, social psychology and social consciousness in ancient China. "This is the basic spirit of China's ancient traditional culture." (Yang Xianbang, Re-evaluation of China's traditional culture, edited by Zhang Liwen, etc., Traditional culture and modernization, published by Renmin University of China Press. Some scholars believe that China's national spirit can be roughly summarized into four interrelated aspects: (1) rational spirit. It has a long tradition of atheism, fully affirms the unity of man and nature and the unity of individual and society, and advocates that the satisfaction of personal feelings and desires is consistent with the rational requirements of society. On the whole, denying the religious worship of supernatural God and savior and the existence of the other side of the world, vigorously advocating the harmonious unity between man and nature, individual and society, and opposing the split confrontation between them are the roots of the rational spirit of the Chinese nation. (2) the spirit of freedom. This is first manifested in the people's spirit of resisting the rule of the exploiting classes. At the same time, in the struggle against foreign oppression, some classes, groups and figures in the ruling class also actively participated in this struggle. It shows that in the ideological and cultural tradition of the ruling class in China, there is also a positive side of "loving freedom". (3) Realistic spirit. Confucianism in the pre-Qin dynasty advocated that "the known is known, and the unknown is unknown", knowing people and discussing the world opposed being born with knowledge; Legalists oppose "foresight", pay attention to "experience", emphasize implementation and praise merit; Taoism advocates "knowing people", "knowing friends" and "analyzing the principles of everything". These are the tables of seeking truth from facts. (4) the spirit of strain. (See Liu Gangji: On the Chinese National Spirit, Journal of Wuhan University 1985,No. 1. Some scholars believe that the basic spirit of China traditional culture can be summarized as "respecting ancestors, respecting human relations, respecting morality and saluting". (See Sima Yunjie: Sociology of Culture, published by Shandong People's Publishing House. In addition, China's traditional culture also has the viewpoint of development, self-improvement and tireless learning spirit. (See Ding Shouhe: "Trial of China Traditional Culture", "Seeking Roots" No.4, 1987. Some scholars believe that the spirit of China traditional culture is humanism. This humanism is manifested as follows: people are not isolated from interpersonal relationships, nor are they opposed to nature; Do not pursue a purely natural knowledge system; It is anti-utilitarian in axiology; Pay tribute to being a man. The humanistic spirit of China's traditional culture has added luster to our nation and country, but it has also set obstacles; It spread the light of wisdom to the world, but also caused various obstacles to Chinese and foreign exchanges; This is a huge spiritual wealth and a huge cultural burden. (See Pang Pu: Humanistic Spirit of China Culture, Guangming Daily 1986 1.6. )
(Li Zonggui: An Introduction to China Culture)
Culture refers to the spiritual wealth created by human beings such as literature, art, education and science. In archaeology, it refers to the synthesis of relics and remains in the same historical period. The same tools, appliances, manufacturing technology, etc. Is the characteristic of the same culture. Sometimes culture also refers to civilization.
Although as early as the primitive society, the first division of labor that human beings have formed produced the agricultural nation and the animal husbandry nation, the early cultures were all produced in the agricultural nation, because the animal husbandry nation depended on weeds for a living and had no fixed place, so it was not easy to produce large-scale settlement and there was no urgent demand for writing; However, agricultural nations are easy to form big tribes, and building water conservancy requires a large number of people and Qi Xin to work together, so the earliest big countries and slavery were born in agricultural nations. Only with great powers and slavery can a large number of idle classes be produced. They invented writing, which promoted the second division of labor between mental and physical labor. As a result, a narrow sense of culture has emerged (a broad sense of culture refers to all human activities and can be called culture).
catalogue
1 the concept of culture
2 Some views on culture
3 the characteristics of culture
4 the classification of culture
5 See also
[Editor] The concept of culture
The word "culture" comes from the Latin verb "Colere", which means to cultivate the land (hence gardening in English), and later it is extended to cultivate one's interest, spirit and intelligence. The concept of culture was put forward by British anthropologist edward tylor in 187 1 year. He defined culture as "a complex whole, including knowledge, belief, art, law, morality, customs, abilities and habits acquired as members of society". Since then, the definition of culture has emerged one after another. Clyde Kluckhohn collected more than 100 cultural definitions in the late 1960s.
Culture is actually the abbreviation of "humanistic education" in Chinese. The premise is that only people can have culture, that is to say, culture is the exclusive language to discuss human society; "Wen" is the foundation and tool, including language and/or writing; "Education" is the real focus of this word: as a noun, "education" is the common norm of people's spiritual and material activities (and this norm is reflected in the objectification results of spiritual and material activities), and as a verb, "education" is the process and means of the emergence, inheritance, dissemination and recognition of this common norm.
[Editor] Some views on culture
Different disciplines have different understandings of culture.
Explain culture from a philosophical point of view, and think that culture is essentially the expression of philosophical thoughts. Because of the epochal and regional nature of philosophy, different styles of culture are determined. Generally speaking, the change of philosophy leads to the change of social system, accompanied by the suppression of old culture and the rise of new culture.
From the perspective of existentialism, culture is a description of the way of existence of a person or a group of people. People exist in nature as well as in history and times; Time is an important platform for a person or a group of people to exist in nature; Society, country and nation (family) are another important platform for a person or a group of people to exist in history and times; Culture refers to people's way of speaking or expressing, communication or behavior, consciousness or cognition in this process of existence. Culture is not only used to describe the external behavior of a group of people, but also includes the individual's spiritual consciousness and perception mode. A way for a person to return to his inner world for self-dialogue and observation.
The core of culture is its symbol system, such as writing. Every writing system has its own cognitive psychology.
[Editor] Characteristics of culture
Only through the comparative study of different cultures can we understand the characteristics of culture.
First of all, culture is shared, it is a series of shared ideas, values and codes of conduct, and it is a common standard that makes individual behavior ability acceptable to the collective. Culture and society are closely related. Without society, there is no culture, but there will also be a society without culture. Within the same society, culture is also inconsistent. For example, in any society, the culture of men is different from that of women. In addition, there are differences in subcultures of different ages, occupations and classes.
Culture is learned, not inherited. The way of physiological satisfaction is determined by culture, and each culture determines how these needs are met. From this perspective, non-human primates also have the ability of various cultural behaviors, but these cultural behaviors are only one-way cultural expressions, such as eating termites and shouting vigilance. Compared with the huge and complex cultural symbol system of human society, this is only a little insignificant.
Reference: Assimilation
The foundation of culture is symbols. Among them, language and writing are the most important, but it also includes other forms of expression, such as images (such as totem flags), body movements (such as shaking hands and sticking out your tongue), and behavior interpretation (gift giving). We can almost say that the whole cultural system is deeply rooted in human thinking through a huge symbol system, and people also understand and interpret various things in front of them through this symbol system. Therefore, how to interpret the essential meaning of various symbols in this culture has become one of the important ways for anthropology, linguistics and other social disciplines to interpret the human mind.
In addition, culture, as an interrelated whole, shows a trend of integration.
From the famous cultural website Phoenix:: A random person, his gestures, his smile and his overall temperament came face to face. He walked past a tree with its branches hanging low. Did he break the branch and throw it away, or did he bend down? A stray dog with tinea came up to him. Did he avoid it piteously or kick it away? When the elevator door opens, does he make people humble or overbearing? A blind man stood side by side with him at the intersection with the green light on. Will he help the blind man? How did he pass by others? How did he bow his head and untie his shoelaces? How did he get the change from the vegetable vendor? How can he get along with himself when he is alone?
Culture is actually reflected in how a person treats himself, others and his natural environment. In a culturally rich society, people know how to respect themselves-he doesn't agree, so he has a taste, because he doesn't agree; People know how to respect others-he is not overbearing, because he is not overbearing, so he has morality; Humans know how to respect nature-don't plunder, because they don't plunder, so there is a sustainable life.