1. Confucianism

Representative figures: Confucius, Mencius, Xunzi.

Works: "The Analects", "Mencius", "Xunzi"

Confucianism is one of the important schools of thought in the Warring States Period. It took Confucius as its teacher in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Six Arts as its method. An academic faction that advocates "rituals and music" and "benevolence and righteousness", advocates "loyalty and forgiveness" and the impartial "gold mean", advocates "moral governance" and "benevolent governance", and attaches great importance to moral and ethical education and people's self-cultivation.

Confucianism upholds the "Rites of Zhou" and believes that benevolence is when everyone stays within themselves, cares for each other, and achieves a harmonious world. Ren is the core content of Confucianism. Its main contents are as follows:

Ethics: Benevolence is the general outline of ethics and morality. Benevolence means loving others. The monarch should consider the sentiments of the people, cherish the people's strength, and oppose tyranny. To practice benevolence, you need loyalty and forgiveness. Loyalty means doing one's duty; forgiveness means treating oneself the same as others. Promote etiquette and music to restrain people's behavior and cultivate their temperament.

Political outlook: Advocates governing the country with etiquette and justice, and restoring the rule of virtue in the Western Zhou Dynasty. People from all walks of life should perform their duties to achieve a harmonious situation of "lord, minister, father, son, son". This is the idea of ??correcting names.

Views on education: Confucius proposed the idea that there should be no distinction between high and low, virtuous and foolish. He believes that teaching students in accordance with their aptitude is the ideal teaching method. He also advocated learning methods such as reviewing the past to learn new things and drawing inferences from one instance.

Cosmology: The attitude towards ghosts and gods is to ignore them, advocating respecting ghosts and gods and staying away from them, but attaching great importance to worshiping ancestors.

By the Warring States Period, Confucianism was divided into eight schools, the two most important ones being Mencius and Xunzi.

Later, Mencius discussed benevolence with the "theory of good nature", "Human beings are different from animals in a few ways." He believed that human nature is inherently good and possesses four kinds of goodness: compassion, shame, resignation, and right and wrong. If carried forward, it can become the virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom.

He advocated changing human nature through education and doing good and eliminating evil. Xunzi emphasized that social order should be maintained through "rule by etiquette", so that people from all walks of life can abide by their duties, and society will be stable.

The "benevolence, righteousness, etiquette, wisdom, and trustworthiness" advocated by Confucianism have been respected by rulers and academic circles in the past dynasties, and have become the core of traditional Chinese thought and the mainstream of morality.

2. Taoism

Representative figures: Laozi, Zhuangzi, Yang Zhu.

Works: "Tao Te Ching", "Zhuangzi"

Taoism was one of the important schools of thought during the Warring States Period, also known as moralists. This school of thought is based on Laozi's theory of "Tao" in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and uses "Tao" to explain the nature, origin, composition and changes of all things in the universe. It believes that the way of heaven is inactive and all things come into being naturally. It denies that God and ghosts dominate everything. It advocates that Tao follows nature and lets nature take its course. It advocates quietness and inaction, keeping the feminine and soft, and using softness to overcome hardness. The political ideal is to govern a small country with few people and do nothing. After Laozi, Taoism internally divided into different sects, the famous four major sects: Zhuangzi School, Yang Zhu School, Song Yin School and Huanglao School.

Tao is the ideological center of Lao-Zhuang’s theory and the source of all things. The Tao is also an endless cycle. Taoism emphasizes that there is no need to force everything, and one should follow nature to reach the highest state of Tao. The Taoist spirit lies in spiritual detachment, not limited by body and drive, but only seeking freedom and spiritual openness. The following are Taoist concepts:

Cosmology: Tao is invisible and invisible. It is the absolute spirit that transcends time and space. It is the highest ontology of the universe and the source of all things.

Political view: During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, wars continued and people's livelihoods were difficult. People must give up showing off their talent, wisdom, strength, and strength, return to the realm of simplicity and ignorance, and govern the world with inaction, so that the world can be peaceful and stable. . Ultimately, we hope to restore the primitive society of a small country with few people.

Outlook on life: Everything has its opposite, and everything must be reversed at its extreme. Therefore, people must be content with few desires, be weak and uncontested, adapt to nature, and abandon all shackles of etiquette in order to avoid disasters.

3. Mohism

Representative figure: Mozi.

Work: "Mozi"

Mohism was one of the important schools of thought during the Warring States Period, and its founder was Mo Zhai. Respecting the virtuous and promoting unity is the basic political program of Mohism. Mohism and Confucianism are both called "Xianxue". The following is the Mohist concept.

Ethics: Proposes "universal love", advocating that love should not have distinctions between closeness, superiority, inferiority, and hierarchy. He believes that the reason why the world is in chaos is because people do not love each other.

Political views: Advocate "respecting the worthy" and "respecting the same", advocating the selection of talented people, eliminating class concepts, and bringing order to the world, advocating "non-offensive", and opposing all aggressive wars.

Economic outlook: Opposes luxurious life, advocates frugality, and puts forward the ideas of "frugal use", "frugal burial" and "not happiness".

Cosmology: Proposes "non-fate", believing that fate cannot control people's wealth and poverty, emphasizing that it can be changed only through acquired efforts. In order to seek blessings and avoid disasters, he also advocated "respecting heaven" and "serving ghosts".

The Mohist family has a strict organization, and most of its members come from the lower classes of society. According to legend, they are all able to go through fire and knife to inspire themselves through hardship. Those who engage in debate are called "Mobian"; those who engage in martial arts are called "Moxia"; their leaders are called "Juzi". Its discipline is strict, and it is said that "the Mohist's law is to kill those who kill and punish those who injure others" ("Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals").

After Mo Zhai's death, he split into three factions. In the late Warring States period, they merged into two branches: one focused on the study of epistemology, logic, mathematics, optics, mechanics and other disciplines, and was called the "Moist School" (also known as the "Late Mohist School"); the other branch was transformed into the Qin and Han Dynasties. Social Ranger.

The Mohists emphasized hard work and frugality. "Universal love" was more difficult to follow than "benevolence", and because there were fewer records, it would not develop much in the future.

Representative figure: Mozi’s representative work: "Mozi"

Thoughts: Advocates "universal love" and "non-aggression", hopes that people will help each other and love each other, oppose aggressive wars, and support just wars .

Mozi, whose surname was Mo and whose given name was Zhai, was born and died from about 468 BC to 376 BC. He was a native of the Lu State and some say of the Song State. Mozi was born a commoner and called himself "the humble man of the north". He was also known as "the common man" and "the bitch".

He was a senior official in the Song Dynasty. He boasted that "there is nothing for the emperor to do above, and there is no difficulty for farmers below." He was a scholar who sympathized with "farmers and workers"; he once studied under Shi Later, he passed on his method of clearing the temples; he also studied Confucianism and learned the techniques of Confucius, and praised Yao, Shun, and Yu. He became famous in "Poems", "Books", and "Spring and Autumn Annals". He was dissatisfied with the strictness of Confucian rituals and music, so he abandoned the Zhou Dynasty. Dao and use Xia Zheng.

Promote non-aggression, respect for the virtuous, respect for the same, frugal use, frugal burial, non-happiness, heaven's will, clear ghosts, and non-fate, with universal love as the core. He is a man who "corrects himself with rope and ink and prepares for the emergencies of the world." In order to promote his ideas, Mozi recruited many students and disciples, and usually had hundreds of disciples, forming a powerful Mohist school. Mozi spoke of "lords and princes" in his teachings, and "people on foot" in his teachings. He almost "said it from others". Wherever he traveled, he reached Qi in the east, Zheng and Wei in the west, and Chu and Yue in the south.

Mozi was a man of great erudition and was good at craftsmanship and production. He once made a "wooden kite" that could fly for three days and three nights. He was also good at city defense techniques, and later learned to summarize his experience in "City Defense" 21. He also made achievements in the field of name debate and became one of the ancestral sources of the name debate trend in the Warring States Period. Mozi's deeds can be found in "Xunzi", "Hanfeizi", "Zhuangzi", "Lu Shi Chunqiu", "Huainan Yu" and other books respectively. His thoughts are mainly preserved in the book "Mozi" of the Mohist school.

4. Legalism

Representative figures: Han Fei, Shang Yang, Li Si.

Works: "Han Feizi", "Shang Jun Shu", "Guan Zi"

Legalism was one of the important schools of thought during the Warring States Period. , no distinction is made between high and low, and is based on the law." Therefore, it is called Legalism. During the Spring and Autumn Period, Guan Zhong and Zichan were the pioneers of Legalism. In the early Warring States period, Li Kui, Shang Yang, Shen Buhai, Shen Dao, etc. founded the Legalist school. By the end of the Warring States Period, Han Fei integrated Shang Yang's "method", Shen Dao's "power" and Shen Buhai's "technique" to assemble the culmination of Legalist thought and doctrine.

Legalists advocated "ruling the country by law" and put forward a complete set of theories and methods. This provided an effective theoretical basis for the centralized Qin Dynasty that was later established. The later Han Dynasty inherited the Qin Dynasty's centralized system and legal system and became the political and legal subject of ancient Chinese feudal society.

His theory provided theoretical basis and action strategy for the establishment of a unified monarchy.

Economically, he advocates the abolition of well fields, focusing on agriculture, suppressing business, and rewarding farming wars;

Politically, he advocates the abolition of feudalism, the establishment of prefectures and counties, an autocratic monarchy, the use of power, and harsh punishments. To rule;

In terms of thought and education, it advocates banning the theories of various schools of thought, using the law as teaching, and officials as teachers.

Legalism attaches great importance to law, opposes Confucian "rituals", opposes the hereditary privileges of aristocrats monopolizing economic and political interests, and requires the private ownership of land and the award of official positions based on merit and talent. The function of the law is to "determine disputes and settle disputes," that is, to clarify the ownership of objects. "Exerting meritorious service and fearing violence" encourages people to perform military exploits and make those lawless people feel fear. The ultimate goal of meritorious service is to enrich the country and strengthen the army and win the annexation war.

Legalists opposed conservative retro-thinking and advocated reform. They believe that history is moving forward, and all laws and systems must develop with the development of history. They can neither retrogress or retrogress, nor stick to the past and put forward the idea of ??"not following the past, not the present." Han Fei gathered the Mahayana of Legalism and proposed that "as time passes, governance becomes difficult and chaos results." He caricatured the conservative Confucians as stupid people who wait and wait.

Shang Yang, Shen Dao, and Shen Buhai respectively advocated emphasis on law, emphasis on power, and emphasis on technique, each with its own characteristics. Han Fei proposed the idea of ??closely integrating the three. Law refers to the sound legal system; Shi refers to the power of the monarch, who must be solely responsible for military and political power; Technique refers to the strategies and means of controlling ministers, controlling political power, and implementing laws, mainly to detect and prevent rebellion and maintain the status of the monarch.

"Hanshu. Yiwenzhi" records 217 legalist works, nearly half of which are extant today, the most important of which are "Shang Junshu" and "Han Feizi".

5. Military strategists

Representative figures: Sun Wu, Sun Bin

Representative works: "Sun Tzu's Art of War" and "Sun Tzu's Art of War" (some people in academia believe that "Sun Tzu's Art of War" " and "Sun Bin's Art of War" are the same book)

Military strategists are the general term for strategists and military strategists in ancient China, and specifically refer to the pre-Qin faction that studied strategy and war. The important works of the military strategist include "Sun Tzu's Art of War", "Wu Zi", "Sun Bin's Art of War", "Sima Fa", "Six Tao", "Three Strategies" and "Wei Liao Zi".

The culmination of military strategists is Sun Wu’s "The Art of War". Military strategists have always been valued in China since ancient times. The development of military art in China has a long history. Military art originated in the Western Zhou Dynasty and matured in the Spring and Autumn Period.

How to grasp war from a macro perspective is the key to the art of war. War is a continuation of politics, a major matter related to the life or death of a country or a nation or its enslavement. The Art of War can also be regarded as a guide on how to rule a country and formulate national strategies; it is also a book on how to lead troops in war and formulate war strategies and tactics.

Representative figures:

1. Sun Wu, a native of Qi State, with the courtesy name Changqing, was a strategist of the Spring and Autumn Period. He once met King Helu of Wu with Chapter 13 of "The Art of War". After Wu Zixu's recommendation, he was appointed as a general and led the Wu army to attack Chu.

He believed that "soldiers are the most important thing for the country" and proposed that "know your enemy and yourself, and you can fight a hundred battles without danger". He focused on understanding the situation and comprehensively analyzed the contradictions between the enemy and ourselves, the numbers, strength and weakness, actual situation, offense and defense, advance and retreat, etc. And through understanding and mastering the objective laws of war to defeat the enemy. He also proposed that "army has no constant momentum, and water has no constant shape. It can win due to the changes of the enemy, which is called a god." He emphasized the "coexistence of strange and positive" and flexible use of strategy and tactics.

Sun Wu wrote the book "The Art of War", which is China's most outstanding military book and is highly valued around the world.

2. Sun Bin, a native of Ajuan in the Qi State, a descendant of Sun Wu, was roughly the same time as Shang Yang and Meng Ke, and was a strategist during the Warring States Period. He once studied the art of war with Pang Juan. When Pang Juan was the general of King Hui of Wei, he was afraid of his talents and deceived him into the Wei state. He was sentenced to death (that is, the removal of kneecaps), so he was called Sun Bin. Later, he was secretly brought back by the envoys of Qi State, and was appointed as a military advisor by King Wei of Qi. He assisted Qi General Tian Ji and designed to defeat the Wei army in Guiling and Maling.

He inherited and developed Sun Wu's military theory, regarded "Tao" as the objective law of war, proposed the strategy of defeating the numerous and the weak against the strong, and advocated an offensive-oriented strategy. Create favorable offensive situations based on different terrains, and pay attention to the attack on cities and the use of battle strategies. He is the author of the book "Sun Bin's Art of War".

6. Politicians

Representative figures: Guiguzi, Su Qin, Zhang Yi.

The main remarks are passed down in "Warring States Policy" and "Guigu Jing"

Strategists were counselors who used the strategy of vertical and horizontal manipulation to lobby the princes and engage in political and diplomatic activities during the Warring States Period in China. Listed as one of the hundred schools of thought. The main representatives are Su Qin, Zhang Yi, etc.

During the Warring States Period, the south and the north were combined to form a vertical line, and the west and the east were linked to form a horizontal line. Su Qin urged Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi, and Chu to unite vertically to resist Qin, while Zhang Yi tried to break the vertical alliance and formed a horizontal line. The six kingdoms of the Heng Dynasty each served Qin, and the Zong Heng family got its name from this. Their activities had an important impact on the changes in the political and military structure during the Warring States Period. The so-called "strategist" refers to a person who advocates the diplomatic strategy of "unity" or "union".

Su Qin and Zhang Yi are called the most famous political strategists. Without Su and Zhang, there would be no Hezong and Lianheng, and naturally there would be no so-called political strategists and political strategists. The theories of Su Qin and Zhang Yi are mostly scattered in history books, but there are few monographs.

"Warring States Policy" contains extensive records of his activities. According to "Hanshu Yiwenzhi", political strategists once wrote "Sixteen Masters and One Hundred and Seven Chapters".

Representative figures:

1. Su Qin

Su Qin’s courtesy name is Ji Zi. A native of Luoyang in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty during the Warring States Period. He learned the art of vertical and horizontal lobbying and persuaded other countries. When he first arrived in Qin, he appealed to King Hui, but he didn't use it. He went east to Zhao, Yan, Han, Wei, Qi, and Chu, and lobbied the six countries to unite to control Qin. He ministered to the Six Kingdoms, returned to Zhao, and was named Lord Wu'an by Zhao. Later, Qin sent people to deceive Qi, Wei and attack Zhao. The six countries could not cooperate and the alliance collapsed.

He moved to Yan and moved to Qi, where he became a guest of Qi. He competed with Doctor Qi for favor and was killed. One theory is that he entered Qi from Yan and engaged in anti-insurgency activities, which enabled Yan to defeat Qi. Later, his anti-insurgency activities were exposed and he was killed by Qi's chariot.

Zonghengjia had thirty-one chapters of "Su Zi", which are lost today. The silk book "Book of the Warring States Strategists" unearthed from the Mawangdui Han Tomb contains sixteen chapters of Su Qin's letters and lobbying speeches, which is different from the "Historical Records: Biography of Su Qin".

2. Zhang Yi

Zhang Yi was a native of Wei and a famous strategist during the Warring States Period. When he entered Qin during the reign of King Hui of Wei, Lord Qin Huiwen became a guest. In 328 BC, Qin sent Zhang Yi and Gongzi Hua to attack Wei, and Wei ceded Shangjun to Qin. At that time, Zhang Yi was the prime minister of Qin.

Hui Wenjun became king in the thirteenth year (325 BC), and changed the following year to the first year of Gengyuan. In the second year of Gengyuan, Zhang Yi met with the ruling ministers of Qi, Chu, and Wei in Zhisang, and he immediately resigned. The next year, Zhang Yi came to Wei, and in the eighth year of Gengyuan, he came to Qin again.

In the twelfth year, Zhang Yi returned to Chu and later returned to Qin. After King Huiwen died, King Wu came to the throne. There was a gap between him and Zhang Yi, so he left Qin and went to Wei. According to the "Bamboo Book Annals", he died in Wei in May of this year. There are ten chapters of "Zhang Zi" in the strategist category of "Hanshu Yiwenzhi", which collect Zhang Yi's works or materials related to him. They are now lost.

7. Yin Yang Family

Representative figure: Zou Yan

Representative works: "Zou Zi" and "The End of Zou Zi"

The Yin Yang School was one of the important schools of thought during the Warring States Period. It was named after advocating the theory of Yin Yang and the Five Elements and using it to explain social and human affairs. This school of thought should have originated from the ruling class in charge of astronomy and calendars in ancient times. Its representative figure was Zou Yan, a native of Qi during the Warring States Period.

In terms of their view of nature, the Yin-Yangists used the concept of Yin-Yang in the Book of Changes to put forward the theory of cosmic evolution. They also proposed the theory of "Great Kyushu" based on the "Division of Kyushu" in the "Book of Changes" and believed that China was Chixian Shenzhou has Small Kyushu inside and one of the "Great Kyushu" outside.

In terms of historical perspective, the Five Elements View of "Shang Shu" is transformed into "Five Virtues Ending and Beginning", also known as "Five Virtues Transfer". "Five virtues" refers to the attributes of the five elements, namely earth virtue, wood virtue, metal virtue, water virtue and fire virtue. According to the Yin Yang School, everything in the universe corresponds to the Five Elements, each with its own virtues. The movement of heaven, the changes in the human world, the replacement of dynasties, etc. are the result of the "transfer of the Five Virtues." Its purpose was to demonstrate the social changes at that time.

In terms of political ethics, the Yin-Yang School believes that "benevolence, righteousness, and frugality are limited to the charity of the emperor and his ministers, superiors and subordinates" and supports the Confucian theory of benevolence and righteousness. At the same time, it is emphasized that "due to the great harmony of yin and yang", it contains certain knowledge of astronomy, calendar, meteorology and geography, which has certain scientific value.

The Yin-Yang School still existed in the early Han Dynasty. After Emperor Wu dismissed all schools of thought, some of its contents were integrated into the Confucian ideological system and some of its contents were absorbed by primitive Taoism. As an independent school, the Yin-Yang School ceased to exist.

"Hanshu. Yiwenzhi" records twenty-one works of this school, all of which have been lost. The "Book of Rites. Yue Ling", which was completed in the late Warring States period, is said by some to be the work of the Yin Yang family. Some chapters in "Guanzi" are also written by the Yin-Yang family. Some materials from the Yin-Yang family are preserved in "Lu Shi Chun Qiu Ying Tong", "Huainan Zi Qi Su Xun" and "Historical Records. The Chronicles of Qin Shihuang".

Representative figures:

Zou Yan (about 305 BC to 240 BC), a native of Qi State, a representative figure of the Yin and Yang family, was famous for his profound knowledge and great debate. People call him Tan Tianyan, also known as Zou Zi.

There are some errors in his deeds recorded in old history, but it is certain that he was from the late Warring States Period. Zou Yan once traveled to Xuejixia Academy, where he was more knowledgeable than Qi. When he arrived in Wei, he was welcomed by King Hui of Wei in the suburbs. When he arrived at Zhao, Lord Pingyuan treated him as a guest and a host. When he arrived at Yan, King Zhao of Yan personally swept the dust in front of him, listened to his lectures, built a stone palace for him, and held disciple ceremonies. Therefore, it is speculated that he may have died after the Battle of Changping.

Zou Yan’s works "Zou Zi" and "Zou Zi Beginning" are said to have more than 100,000 words, but they have been lost long ago. At present, only some passages of "Lu Shi Chun Qiu" and Sima Qian's "Historical Records" can reveal his thoughts.

8. Miscellaneous Schools

Representative: Lu Buwei

Works: "Lu's Spring and Autumn"

During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, a hundred schools of thought contended, and each school They all have their own strategies and ideas for governing the country. In order to defeat other schools, each school more or less absorbs the theories of other schools, either to attack the other school, or to make up for the shortcomings of its own theory. However, every school also has its own characteristics and strengths, and the "Miscellaneous Family" makes full use of this characteristic, draws on the opinions of many people, and develops a set of ideologically inclusive but practical policies for governing the country.

Zajia was a comprehensive school in the late Warring States period. He got his name because he "combined Confucianism, Mohism, and Ming and Dharma" and "comprehensively integrated all the Taoism of hundreds of schools of thought" ("Hanshu Yiwenzhi" and Yan Shigu's annotations). "Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals" compiled by Lu Buwei, Prime Minister of the Qin Dynasty, gathered his disciples and was a typical collection of miscellaneous works.

Strictly speaking, "Miscellaneous Family" is not a conscious and inherited school of thought, so he does not claim to be a "Miscellaneous Family" school. Since "Han Shu. After "Yiwenzhi" classified "Lu's Spring and Autumn Period" into "Miscellaneous Family" for the first time, this school was officially named.

Lu Buwei, originally from Puyang, Wei State, was a famous politician in the late Warring States Period. He served as the Prime Minister of Qin for thirteen years, laying the foundation for Qin's final unification of the six kingdoms. Lu Buwei has been selling expensive goods for a long time and accumulated a large amount of family property. But he was not satisfied with his status as a big businessman and was always looking for opportunities to join politics.

One year, he went to Handan, the capital of Zhao State, to do business and met the prince of Qin State. At that time, the foreigner was a hostage in Zhao, and the situation was not very good. Lu Buwei thought that "a rare thing could be lived in", so he first gave it money and beautiful women to win the foreigner's favor. Then, he persuaded Mrs. Huayang's sister to bribe King Qin Xiaowen to buy Mrs. Huayang as the prince.

After the death of King Xiaowen of Qin in 250 BC, the prince Yiren was able to return to the country and ascend the throne. He was called King Zhuangxiang of Qin. After the death of King Qin Zhuangxiang, King Qin Yingzheng came to the throne. Lu Buwei was honored as "Zhongfu" and acted as regent for King Qin.

After Qin Wangzheng came to power, Lu Buwei was dismissed. He first lived in Henan and later studied in Shu County. In the twelfth year of Qin Wangzheng's reign, he committed suicide on his way to Shu County. The famous "Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals" was compiled by his disciples.

9. Famous Masters

Representative figures: Gongsun Long, Hui Shi, Deng Xi and Huan Tuan.

Work: "Gongsun Longzi"

Mingjia was one of the important schools of thought during the Warring States Period, and its main academic activity was engaged in debating name (name, concept) and reality (fact, reality) He was called a famous figure by later generations. At that time, people called him "arguer", "chasser" or "famous expert in punishment (form)".

Mingjia is a school of thought that advocates abiding by names and responsibility for reality. It advocates "correcting names and facts", which is exactly "correcting the rights and wrongs of each other, so that names and facts are consistent." During the Warring States Period, the situation was turbulent and chaotic. Many rituals exist in name only. Famous scholars emerged from this, emphasizing that things should "live up to their name" in order to put everything in the world on the right track.

Famous scholars focus on debating the relationship between "name" and "reality", which is a kind of logic. The difference between famous artists and other schools lies in the method of "correcting the name and reality". They mainly analyze things based on logical principles, and the content of their debates are mostly philosophical issues that have nothing to do with political practice. Therefore, the theories of famous scholars have always been given the reputation of "sophism" in China's five thousand years of academic history.

The decline of famous scholars was not only because they were not supported by their superiors, but also because their disciples had no innovative ideas that could surpass their predecessors.

Representative figures

1. Gongsun Long, a native of Zhao or Wei, has the passing name Zibing. He was born in about the forty-fourth year of Zhou Xian and died in the sixth year of Zhou Huigong. His life was at the same time as Zhuangzi, Huishi, Mencius and Zou Yan. Because Gongsun Long "specializes in names" and adheres to names, his debates are mainly carried out by language itself, and are separated from the debate on specific and empirical things.

Gongsun Long was good at debating similarities and differences, reaching his peak state. His main debates include: White Horse Theory, Pointing to Things Theory, Jianbai Theory, Name and Reality Theory, etc.

2. Hui Shi, born in 370 BC (or 380 BC), died in 310 BC, was a famous scholar of the Song Dynasty in the middle of the Warring States Period, the originator of famous schools, and was a friend of Zhuangzi. He served as the prime minister of Wei (King Hui of Liang); later Hui Shi's activities to unite Qi and Chu failed and was expelled by Zhang Yi.

Hui Shi was quick-thinking, erudite and eloquent, good at eloquence and logical reasoning. He once set off a climax of famous debate with Huan Tuan, Gongsun Long and other debaters, so there is a saying "Hui Shi gave the debate to, Ten thousand stones should be cautious."

10. Representative medical figure: Bian Que

The formation of Chinese medical theory took place from the second half of the fifth century BC to the middle of the third century AD. for many years. In the second half of the fifth century BC, China began to enter feudal society. The transition from slave society to feudal society and the establishment of the feudal system was a period of great turmoil in Chinese history. Changes in social systems have promoted economic development, and new situations have emerged in the fields of ideology, science and culture, including the development of medicine. Physicians generally refer to all people who practice medicine. Bianque was a native of Luyi, Qi State, and was also recorded as a native of Bohai County or Zheng, Bohai County. "Bian Que" is not his real name. People compared him with Bian Que during the Yellow Emperor's time and called him "Mr. Bian Que". Even history books call him Bian Que. Bian Que's original surname was Qin, and his name was from Yue. Born from 407 BC to 310 BC, about the same time as Confucius. Since Bian Que was from Lu, people also called him "Doctor Lu". Bian Que is a famous medical scientist in Chinese history and the first medical scientist in history to have an official biography.

Bian Que was able to adopt a pragmatic attitude to study medicine and absorb folk medical experience. He made great achievements in medicine and enjoyed a high reputation among the people. Bian Que has been practicing medicine among the people for a long time and traveled to Qi, Zhao, Wei, Zheng and Qin countries.

In 310 BC, the Qin imperial physician who was jealous of his talents ordered Li Mi to send people to set up an ambush in Xiaoshan and assassinate Bian Que. He died at the age of ninety-seven.

11. Nongjia Representative figure: Xu Xing

Nongjia was one of the important schools of thought during the Warring States Period. It got its name because of its focus on agricultural production. This faction originated from the officials who managed agricultural production in ancient times. They believe that agriculture is the basis of food and clothing and should be placed first in all work. "Mencius. "Teng Wen Gong 1" records that Xu Xing, "the words of Shen Nong", proposed that sages should "farm and eat with the people, and govern well", which expresses the social and political ideals of farmers. This party also pays attention to recording and summarizing agricultural production technology and experience. Chapters such as "Shang Nong", "Ren Di", "Bian Tu", and "Jian Shi" in "Lu Shi Chun Qiu" are considered to be important materials for the study of pre-Qin farmers.

The people who came from the peasant family came from the agricultural officials. He said that he would sow hundreds of grains and encourage farmers to grow mulberry trees so that they could have enough food and clothing. Therefore, there are eight policies: one is food, and the second is goods. Even Confucius said: "The most important thing is food for the people." Therefore, this can be seen as its strength.

Farmers advocate farming together with the people, and then talk about the king and the people farming together. This can be said to be a great concept of freedom and equality, so it inevitably arouses opposition from Confucianists who attach great importance to "rectification of names", thinking that this is Abandoning the righteousness of ruler and ministers, favoring the benefits of farming, and disrupting the order of superiors and subordinates.

Because most of the peasant books were farming skills rather than academic principles, they were exempted from Qin Shihuang’s "Book Burning Order". However, his highest ideal was to work with the people. Although it was a slogan for an equal class, it was not tolerated by Confucians, so many of his works were lost.

Xu Xing was an agricultural expert in the Lu State, a representative figure of farmers in the pre-Qin period, and a speaker of Shen Nong. Most of his deeds are unknown. According to "Mencius and Duke Wen of Teng", he once traveled from Chu to Teng, went to the door and told Duke Wen: "People from far away, hearing that you are benevolent, are willing to accept a piece of paper and become a gangster." Duke Wen added. Chen Liang's disciple Chen Xiang, together with his younger brother Xin, came from Teng in the Song Dynasty and said: "I heard that you are practicing the government of a saint. You are also a saint, and I wish to be a saint." When Chen Xiang saw Xu Xing, he was overjoyed and gave up. He learned his skills from Xu Xing.

In addition, Xu Xingzhu drew the market price based on quantity.

12. Novelist, representative figure: Yu Chu.

Work: "Yu Chu Zhou Shuo"

Novelist, one of the nine or ten pre-Qin dynasties, collected folk legends and discussions to examine people's customs. "Hanshu Yiwenzhi" says: "The origin of novelists is due to the barnyard officials. Talking in the streets and alleys are created by those who listen to the nonsense."

The origin of novelists should be Gai comes from the barnyard official, that is, from someone who makes a living by telling stories. Its meaning is mostly created by street talk and hearsay. It has been passed down and recited by people, and the beauty of the poem is inscribed in Chu Cui.

In ancient times, people regarded saints as their superiors, history as a book, blindness as a poem, workers recited admonitions, officials prescribed instructions, scholars spread rumors, and common people often slandered them. When he arrived in Mengchun, he went to Muduo to listen to songs and inspected people's poems to learn about customs. If you make mistakes, you will correct them; if you make mistakes, you will correct them. Hear what you hear, and you will not be disciplined.

Novelists can represent the customs of the common people. However, because of its small way, it is not valued by the world and will eventually be destroyed. Yu Chu was a native of Luoyang, Henan Province in the Western Han Dynasty. Many of his deeds have been lost. According to "Historical Records" and "Han Zhi", Yu Chu served as an alchemist's minister during the reign of Emperor Wu, riding a horse and wearing yellow clothes, and was known as the Yellow Messenger. It is recorded in "Jiao Si Zhi": "Yu Chu and others in Luoyang used square words to block the Xiongnu and Dayuan."

Although Yu Chu was from the Western Han Dynasty, his contribution to the novelist was the compilation of Cong Tan's novels. According to Zhang Heng's Xijing Fu: "Nine hundred novels were originally written by Yu Chu." This shows Yu Chu's status in compiling novels.

Yu Chu wrote "Yu Chu Zhou Shuo", which is a compilation of his novels. There are nearly a thousand chapters in it, and it is nothing more than a compilation. However, the volumes were numerous and easily lost, so the book was lost early.