1. [US] Richard Westfall: "The Construction of Modern Science", Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2000.
2. Daniel Garber, Michael Ayers (eds.). The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-Century Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998.
3. [Law] Descartes : "Meditations on First Philosophy", Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1986.
4. [Netherlands] Spinoza: "Ethics", 97 pages, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1983.
5. [English] F. Bacon: "New Tools", Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1984.
6. [English] Locke: "A Theory of Human Understanding", Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1959.
7. [English] Hume: "A Treatise of Human Nature", Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1980.
8. [France] Rousseau: "The Social Contract", Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1980.
9. [Germany] Cassirer: "Enlightenment Philosophy", Jinan: Shandong People's Publishing House, 1988.
10. [Germany] Kant: "Introduction to the Metaphysics of the Future", Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1982.
11. [Germany] Hegel: "Phenomenology of Spirit", Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1981.
12. [Germany] Nietzsche: "The Will to Power—An Attempt to Revalue All Values", Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1991.
(4) Western Philosophy in the 20th Century
1. Zhao Dunhua: "New Edition of Modern Western Philosophy", Beijing: Peking University Press, 2001.
2. [Germany] Steigermüller: "Mainstream of Contemporary Philosophy" (Part 1 and 2), Beijing: The Commercial Press, 2000.
3. Xu Youyu: "The "Copernican" Revolution", Shanghai: Joint Publishing Shanghai Branch, 1994.
4． [Australia] Bussmore: "A Century of Philosophy: Recent Philosophers", Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1996.
5. Hong Qian, editor-in-chief: "Logical Empiricism", pp. 7-8, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1989.
6． [Germany] Wittgenstein: "Tractatus Logic and Philosophy", Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1996.
7. [Germany] Wittgenstein: "Philosophical Research", Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1996.
8． [US] Spiegelberg: "The Phenomenological Movement", Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1995.
9． [Germany] Heidegger: "Being and Time", Beijing: Joint Publishing Company, 1999.
10. [Germany] Gadamer: "Truth and Method", Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House, 1999.
11. [French] Foucault: "Discipline and Punish", Beijing: Joint Publishing Company, 1999.
12． Editor-in-chief Ni Liangkang: "Facing the Facts Itself—Selected Classical Works on Phenomenology", Beijing: Oriental Publishing House, 2000.
13. Hong Handing, editor-in-chief: "Understanding and Interpretation - Anthology of Hermeneutic Classics", Beijing: Oriental Publishing House, 2001 The widespread spread of Christianity in modern China is a very important historical event both in terms of culture and social influence. However, today, a century and a half later, when we reflect on its origins, we find that both the mentality and reasons of the general public and ideologies when accepting or rejecting it, as well as the research and understanding of it by some scholars, are relatively lacking. A basic spirit of respecting comprehensive facts and an attitude of rational analysis; there are often many simple accusations or even blind attacks, but few in-depth understanding and understanding.
In response to this situation, this article would like to draw people's attention to the positive impact that Christianity has had on Chinese society since its entry into China in modern times, as well as the aspects that have caused great misunderstandings and even misinterpretations. In particular, it is an attempt to clear up this misunderstanding and correct us a little bit. Bias in understanding, and hope that it will arouse our desire to further explore and think.
1
Since the Opium War, Christianity (whether Protestant or Catholic) has spread rapidly in China. According to the 1923 China Christian Church Yearbook: "Of the 1,073 counties in the country, Christianity has not occupied only 126 counties, and the rest have planted Christian flags." According to statistics from the English version of "China to the Lord" published in 1922, only 126 counties have not been occupied by Christianity. In the 20 years from 1900 to 1920, there were more than 366,000 Protestants in the country, 130 missionary societies, 6,204 foreign missionaries, and more than 10,000 churches. By 1937, the number of believers increased to 650,000. The Catholic Church has also developed accordingly. In 1900, there were 740,000 Catholics, which increased to more than 1.9 million in 1920; by 1936, it reached 2.8 million. Many missionaries travel thousands of miles to preach in China with pure and kind motives in preaching the gospel of God and have nothing to do with business or politics. Take Morrison, the first Protestant priest to come to China, as an example. When he applied to come to China from the United Kingdom, he was fiercely opposed by the British authorities. . Another example is the victim of the Yangzhou Mission Case and the founder of the China Inland Mission, Hudson Taylor, who once said: "If I have a thousand pounds, China can withdraw all of it. If I have a thousand lives, I will not leave any of them, and I will dedicate them all to China." In the Boxer Rebellion, During the Gengzi Movement (Gengzi Rebellion), 58 people of the Inland Mission founded by Hudson Taylor were murdered, in addition to 21 children. However, in the subsequent claims, Hudson Taylor voluntarily gave up his claim for compensation. Even if the Chinese government was willing to compensate, it would not accept it, in order to draw a clear line between it and the unequal treaties.
After a large number of priests came to China, they went deep into the mainland and endured hardships. In addition to preaching, they did a lot of useful work for the Chinese people and had a wide impact. Such as educating the common people, providing medical treatment and emergency rescue, caring for orphans and children, relieving disaster victims, breaking superstition, quitting opium, banning gambling and prostitution, liberating women, etc. Church-run schools in China have achieved amazing growth. In 1889, the total number of students in mission schools was less than 17,000. By 1918, there were approximately 13,000 missionary schools with a total student population of approximately 350,000. It is estimated that by 1926, the total number of mission schools would reach approximately 15,000, with approximately 800,000 students. By 1937, the total number of students in church schools was estimated to be about 1 million, including about 8,000 college students, about 90,000 middle school students, and the rest were primary school students and some seminary students. Among them, Christianity focuses on universities, while Catholicism focuses on primary schools and theology. According to other statistics, in 1914, there were more than 12,000 missionary schools with about 250,000 students. At that time, there were 57,267 government schools in China with about 1.63 million students. The ratio of schools to missionary schools was 5: 1, the student ratio is 6:1, which shows the proportion of church education at that time. The church attaches special importance to higher education. According to Japanese statistics in 1917, the number of students in elementary schools run by foreigners accounted for 4% of the total number of Chinese students at that time, and the number of students in secondary schools accounted for 11%. 80% of the total. Before 1926, there was only one national university in China, Peking University, two provincial universities, Shandong University and Beiyang University, and five private universities. Among them, there were 16 universities run by Christian churches, such as Suzhou East University run by Christians. Wu University, Shanghai St. John's University, Beijing Yenching University, Guangzhou Lingnan University, Jinan Qilu University, Hangzhou Zhijiang University, Nanjing Jinling Women's College of Arts and Sciences, Hunan Xiangya Medical College, etc. Including the Catholic-run Beijing Fu Jen University, Shanghai Aurora University, and Tianjin Technology and Business College. In addition to general education, the Christian church also plays a very important role in special education for people with disabilities, especially its pioneering work, which is indelible. In short, in terms of education, speaking of the United States alone, as Guo Moruo reported at the 65th meeting of the State Council in 1950: "According to a 1936 survey, the total 'investment' of American churches and relief agencies in China amounted to 41.9 million US dollars. Among them, medicine accounted for 14.7%, education accounted for 38.2%, and religious and relief activity expenses accounted for 47%. "Church education also developed greatly in the 1940s until the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949.
As Hu Shi said, "In the past few decades, the church has established many excellent universities and middle schools in China. They have indeed made a lot of contributions and influence on modern academics. Unfortunately, they are gone now." The establishment of all these schools In order to introduce advanced Western science and technology, culture and humanities academics, introduce the new Western education system, and cultivate a new generation of talents, it undoubtedly played a pioneering role. It had a huge impact on the thousands of years of old feudal education and objectively accelerated the process of China’s modernization.
In medicine, according to statistics from the 13th issue of the "Annual of the Christian Church" in 1936, 34 hospitals established by the Protestant Missionary Societies in China were distributed across the country. By the outbreak of the Anti-Japanese War, the total number reached 260. This does not include hospitals run by the Catholic Church. "The Cambridge History of China in the Late Qing Dynasty" states, "In 1876, 412,181 patients were treated in 40 hospitals and clinics; 30 years later, it was reported that at least 2 million patients were treated in 250 mission hospitals and clinics every year." Someone It is summarized, “In the more than 100 years since the church’s medical career began in 1835 until 1949, it had 25,000 hospital beds and an investment of US$50 million in China. On average, about 400 foreign medical staff were employed in these hospitals every year. Hospital work." Take Dr. John Chia, the American Presbyterian who founded China's first mental hospital, as an example. From the day he arrived in China on May 15, 1854, to his death in Guangzhou on August 15, 1901, almost He has been in charge of the business of Boji Hospital for half a century. According to statistics, Dr. Jia John has treated 740,000 outpatients and 40,000 inpatients. He has performed surgeries on more than 49,000 patients, translated 34 books on Western medicine, and trained 150 Western medicine talents. It can be said that he devoted his whole life to China's medical industry. According to statistics, by the time of 1911, more than 100 Western medicine books had been translated by Westerners, covering diagnostic methods, bandaging methods, skin diseases, syphilis, eye diseases, inflammation, medical principles and practices, pharmacology, febrile diseases, and hygiene. , surgery, anatomy and physiology, etc., which were basically done by missionaries; in addition, they also opened pharmaceutical factories, founded medical newspapers and periodicals, and spread modern medical knowledge. All these actions undoubtedly played a very positive role in relieving the suffering of the Chinese people who were in dire straits at that time.
The spread of Western scientific and technological knowledge first benefited from the translation efforts of a group of missionaries such as Flan Ya, Ding Weiliang, and Lin Lezhi. For example, Frye, who worked as a translator for Shanghai Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau for 28 years, was the one who introduced the largest number of Western science and technology works to China among the missionaries in China. According to his "Translation Story", it was published in 1878. There are 97 types of Western scientific and technological works, mainly on engineering technology, including arithmetic, chemistry, automotive science, astronomy, medicine, physics, military industry, etc., as well as history and law. Fairbank also reported that Frye "translated 129 articles in his lifetime, including 57 natural sciences, 48 ??applied sciences, 14 army and naval sciences, and 10 history and social sciences." (The so-called "pieces" are translated here. , many of them are actually "ministries", that is, works). They not only translated and wrote books, but also participated in practice and guided the Westernizationists to establish various industries at that time. In short, as someone summed up, “The internal management of newspapers, hospitals and schools run by missionaries in modern China was a product of Western capitalist civilization. Generally speaking, these institutions have democratic, scientific and efficient management. The capable people, practical buildings, and novel equipment provided a reference for the construction of China's cultural, educational and medical undertakings."
In terms of politics, as Mr. Fan Wenlan believes, the Protestant priests in China are "the leaders of the reform movement. Don’t be a pushover”. This is reflected in three aspects: First, the dissemination of reform ideas was facilitated by the newspapers opened by missionaries, where they introduced Western culture to enlighten people's wisdom. Second, the British Scottish Presbyterian priest Wei Lianchen established the Guangzhou Society in Shanghai, led by a group of missionaries such as Lin Dongzhi, Ding Yuliang, Li Jiabai, Joseph Joseph, and Timothy Richard. Through the translation of Western works, they provided support for reformers who wanted to reform. theory. Third, the "Global Gazette of All Nations" founded by the priests published many articles on current affairs and major political decrees at home and abroad, which effectively promoted the development of the reform movement. Fairbank said, "Christian missionaries played an important role in initially awakening the Chinese people to the need for reform (Kang Youwei is said to have told a reporter in 1898 that he turned to advocating reform mainly due to Li Ti The works of Matthew and Lin Lezhi); in addition, they also helped to form the reformists' own methods, ideas and even worldview.
"During the Revolution of 1911, many revolutionary patriots had close contacts with Christian clergy. Under their influence, many people such as Sun Yat-sen were baptized and became Christians. They risked their lives for the revolution and the destiny of China, and they ignored personal safety and small benefits. It is inseparable from the spiritual power provided by faith.
As we all know, the Christian Church has done a lot and played an important role in the Salesian cause and disaster relief activities in old China, and some were even groundbreaking. . For example, they set up institutions such as nurseries, orphanages, schools for blind children, and schools for the deaf to take in abandoned babies, orphans and children with various disabilities, raise and educate them so that they can grow up and integrate into normal society. Life. "Before liberation, at least 18,000 child corpses could be found on the streets or in garbage bins every year in Shanghai alone. In times of famine, groups of babies are abandoned. "Especially for baby girls. The Infant Care Center is a charity institution established in response to this situation. The Shanghai Our Lady's Infant Care Center was founded in 1867. "According to cumulative statistics, by 1935, the church had taken in more than 17,000 babies. "Of course, due to poor conditions in many nurseries, infectious diseases occur frequently and the mortality rate is very high. When faced with this situation, some gentry and others fabricated all kinds of absurd rumors and incited the masses who did not know the truth to cause trouble. This is one of the important reasons for the occurrence of many teaching projects. However, we should have a sympathetic understanding of this kind of charity of caring for orphans. No matter what the motivation is when it is established, after all, we are abandoning babies. , while others were adopting abandoned babies for us, after all, none of us first thought of setting up a nursery or orphanage. Disasters occurred frequently in old China. Whenever there was a disaster, there were always many missionaries who went to the disaster area to understand the situation, distribute relief items, and comfort the victims. They also carry out extensive fundraising activities at home and abroad; they also set up various disaster relief organizations to engage in long-term and systematic relief work ①
In addition, there are many bad habits in old Chinese traditions, such as foot binding, concubinage and maidservants. For example, the Tianzu movement among women in my country was first promoted by Timothy Richard and others. He established the Tianzu Association in 1895 and used the Guangzhou Society to publish books and newspapers. Propaganda, they traveled all over the country, held meetings and gave speeches, and finally created a trend. In just a few decades, the old custom that had existed for thousands of years was completely eradicated. They also banned the keeping of concubines and maidservants, opposed prostitutes, and tried to make them abstain from opium. , the church presides over and promotes various smoking cessation organizations, and spends money and efforts to prevent the spread of opium throughout the country.
Finally, we conclude with the following sentence, hoping to cause us to reflect as we should: "Christianity is useless in China. There are certainly many, but they have benefited China a lot. For example, Christianity’s achievements in education, society, and morality can be measured and cannot be wiped out in one stroke. It's just that they don't believe in religion themselves, so they can't denigrate everything. Moreover, I have no construction plan, and I only talk about it in a hurry. Instead of using my energy, financial resources, and time to perform larger and more important social services, I want to ignore the construction facts in the church and overthrow them. Their cause of patriotism and saving people seems to be slightly less than sacrificing themselves, staying far away from home to educate blind and mute foreigners, cleanse leprosy, open schools and hospitals for our compatriots... We think this is a destructive and negative move, but we see them right. Good religion is needed to regenerate its spiritual life. ”
II
Since Christianity entered China in modern times, although the ranks of missionaries, especially Chinese Catholics, have been mixed, not everyone has pure missionary motives, and the missionary mentality may not completely avoid being condescending. The colonial mentality of Western superiority; in terms of missionary methods, they often rely on the protection of some unequal treaties to place priests and parishioners in a privileged position; even among missionaries, there are indeed some who have done ugly things in the name of missionary work . However, there has been a lot of research on this aspect, but we have long kept secret the positive activities, as well as the large number of positive people and events in the missionary process, but they are basic facts after all, and they are the main facts. When explaining and evaluating the facts, just using "missionary means and impure motives" may be too simplistic. We believe that religion, politics, commerce, and imperialist overseas colonial expansion are two different things after all; bad things within the church. After all, elements and bad behavior should be treated separately from doctrine and the church as a whole; and in the Chinese people's reaction, it seems that blind hatred of religion, blind xenophobia, and patriotism should be distinguished. It is in the above aspects that we have always lacked serious attention. With a rational attitude, we reject basic facts and quantitative analysis methods.
From modern times to the present day, in the face of the historical fact of the spread of Christianity in China, whether in direct treatment at that time or in subsequent academic discussions, we were often blind and emotional, and treated it with sympathy and understanding. There is little research.
In terms of treatment, the most typical ones include the killing of parishioners, the killing of missionaries, and the burning of churches during the Boxer Rebellion (Gengzi Religion Case). According to incomplete statistics from "The Passion of the Boxer Religion Case" written by Rev. D. M. Gillivray of the General Christian Association, from 1900 to December 1901, the Boxers killed 5 Catholic bishops, 48 ??priests, and nuns who came to China. 9 people, 3 monks, and 30,000 Chinese believers; 188 foreign Christian missionaries and 5,000 believers were killed, and nearly 3/4 of the church was destroyed. [12] (P513) There followed a series of large and small lesson plans; in the 1920s, there was also a non-Christian movement launched by the intellectual circles, which lasted for more than six years. When analyzed, there are no more than four reasons for the emergence of all these behaviors, events and even movements:
The first is the demonization of Christianity. Many local gentry and people, including many officials, believe in and spread all kinds of filth. Absurd and false accusations. For example, churches use drugs to lure people into Christianity; priests can use magic to control women, or use love potions to rape women; men and women listen to sermons in the same room, which is considered to be a gathering of men and women to commit adultery; and infant care centers have been accused of "deceiving babies and gouging their eyes." "Caesarean section and suck brain marrow"; church hospitals were suspected of gouging out eyes and dissecting hearts to use as medicine; Western medicine dissected corpses or prepared human body specimens, all of which were considered to have various unimaginable evil motives; even charity projects run by the church were also considered It is just to lure stupid people into Christianity; the last sacrament of believers is thought to be that priests dig out the eyes of dead people to make silver refining medicine, etc. Many of the above imaginations came from the mouths of gentry, and they are far from the reality of Christianity. It can be ignored how much they damage Christianity; but does it not reflect the obscenity and filth hidden under our cultural robes? Assuming a healthy cultural mentality, would you imagine others like this? During the Boxer Rebellion period, “When the Boxers were explaining the reasons for their repeated failures in attacking churches and suffering heavy casualties, they often said that it was because the other party had naked women running out of the house; the defenders hung women’s skins and other ‘filthy objects’ on the top of the tower; The foreigners cut open the bellies of pregnant women and pinned them to the wall. It is said that the Catholic defenders also had a "Ten Thousand Girls" made of women's pubic hair, which could prevent the Boxers from being possessed by gods when they commanded battles on the top of the tower. "These statements are far from accurate if we only use the word "ignorance" to understand them.
The second is the politicization of Christianity. Many people believe that Christianity is a tool for imperialism to invade China. There are actually many misunderstandings in this view, for four reasons: First, it is misunderstood that the God-worshipping religion of the Taiping Rebellion is the same as Catholicism. In fact, it is one of the four differences with Chinese characteristics. The Qing court hated Hong Xiuquan and also hated the Catholic Church, believing that he was deceiving people and had evil intentions. Second, unequal treaties such as the Treaty of Tianjin and the Treaty of Nanjing include clauses that protect the interests of outsiders in preaching and the Catholics, thereby placing priests and Catholics in a special group, making missionary activities far beyond the scope of pure religion. Among them, France used political and military power to protect the Catholic Church as a typical example. They interfered in local administrative and judicial affairs and favored the Catholics, causing great indignation among the officials and the people. In this way, the religious motivations of Western priests traveling all the way to China to preach have been mixed with the aggression against China by various governments, making it difficult to distinguish them. Moreover, there have indeed been many incidents that have seriously harmed China's sovereignty, interests and national sentiments. Third, some social surveys, data statistics, and maps and tables drawn by the church for the purpose of missionary work or disaster relief were mistaken for espionage. In addition, since the missionaries traveled deep into the mainland after arriving in China, they traveled far and wide. There are three religions and nine streams, all of which are in contact, and the methods of preaching are different from what the Chinese people can understand, understand and accept. All these can easily lead to suspicion and speculation. Of course, we do not deny that individual missionaries have done ugly things that are incompatible with their status, nor do we rule out the possibility that some statistics and charts are used by imperialists. Fourth, many of those who join the religion are of extremely low quality and are actually hooligans who join the religion to gain protection. They evade government decrees and taxes, and can rely on their power to get lighter punishment when committing crimes. They are domineering in the countryside and do whatever they want. Foreign priests often fail to detect or find the true situation, and intentionally or unintentionally protect them, which arouses public outrage and the contempt of the officials and gentry for Christianity. Fairbank pointed out in "The Cambridge History of China in the Late Qing Dynasty": The number of educated and socially established believers in China has always been negligible.
There were Christian believers in China, but “their numbers were never large and were almost exclusively limited to poor farmers and citizens, criminals and other disreputable people, and people who were left impoverished in the treaty ports. For most of them, they were incompatible with the status quo. For Chinese people who are still as harmonious as fish in water, Christianity not only lacks appeal, but also seems to be an obvious threat. "Some Chinese believers" use their relationships with foreigners to extort money and refuse to pay taxes, which is particularly outrageous. Unfortunately, Chinese believers are generally willing to rely on the support and protection of the church to litigate against non-Christian opponents. Some missionaries (mainly Catholic missionaries) condone and even encourage this behavior because they can exert considerable influence on the yamen. The influence of the Church sometimes makes judgments that favor Christians and suppress non-Christians, and the situation gets out of hand, and the scoundrels naturally want to cling to the church one after another, which further aggravates the situation among Chinese believers and ordinary Chinese. Friction among people." Zeng Guofan, who was troubled by the religious case, wrote in the memorial: "Whenever a crime is committed in the church, the priest does not ask about right and wrong, but only protects the religious people; the consul also does not ask about right and wrong, but only protects the priests when there is a fight between the people and the religion. , the people are always singing, and the people are always victorious. The more popular the people are, the more angry the people will be, and they will gather people to think about it." Guo Songtao, who had been an envoy to Europe and was extremely open-minded, made it clear in 1877. Pointed out: "Catholicism, in the name of protecting the religion, relies on its power to give shelter to them. So they commit crimes and commit crimes, and rely on the church as a tool to resist the officials. Even those who commit serious crimes and seek refuge in the church will be enemies of others. Those who rely on priests to carry out their evil deeds will not be able to live in any place where a Catholic church is built in a government, county, department or town."
The third is to alienate Christianity culturally and regard it as inappropriate. When talking about ethics and morality, they are like animals. These views mainly focused on the old gentry and bureaucratic classes. The following official communique of the Hunan gentry province has been recorded, which very well illustrates the general views of the scholar class at that time: Catholicism “does not sweep tombs or worship wooden owners, so there are no ancestors; the father is called elder brother, and the mother is called elder sister, so there is no father and son; Not marrying off a daughter, leaving it to the leader, no husband or wife; no distinction between rich and poor, giving money to join the religion, there is no shame; no distinction between men and women, bathing naked, there is no shame or shame. "Obviously, some of this is culture and. Some of the differences in customs are misunderstandings or even groundless. In addition, the public petition filed by the gentry and people in Hengyang, Hunan to ban Christianity stated: "Those who steal Catholicism originate from the island barbarians and have sympathy for animals. They are unprecedented." "If this religion finally spreads in China, then Once a country with thousands of years of dress and etiquette turns into a land of robbers, beasts, and poultry, wouldn’t it be very painful! Wouldn’t it be deeply hateful?” Such thoughts and emotions are incomprehensible. Someone pointed out that in the many anti-religious cases during the Tongzhi period, "the gentry were often the main planners and instigators, while the scholars who were studying and taking exams were often the people who attacked the religion." Talking about the Boxer Rebellion (Gengzi Religion Case), Warrant Officer G. Gipps, who came to Tianjin with the British warship "Orlando" at the end of May 1900 and participated in the war, in his "North China War" he later wrote, there is this passage: "Every time The events clearly show that the disaster did not come from the Chinese people, but from the officials and literati of the Qing Dynasty. Although the officials and literati usually did not directly participate in the atrocities, they instigated and incited the chaos to humiliate the Christian "barbarians" who lived in peace. , or even persecution." The above situation is of course mainly due to cultural differences and blindness, which leads to major misunderstandings and conflicts in concepts and actions; however, the consideration of practical interests cannot be ruled out here. Liang Qichao once pointed out, "Jesusianism has been in our country for hundreds of years, but few upper-class people have followed it." The reason is worth pondering.
Fourth, Christianity is culturally ignorant, believing that Christianity is completely opposed to science and equating it with darkness and ignorant superstition. This view is mainly concentrated among a new group of intellectuals who awakened around the May Fourth Movement, and it has not fundamentally changed to this day. The "Declaration of the Non-Religious Alliance" and the "Declaration of the Non-Christian Alliance" in the 1920s both held this view, "We swear to eradicate the poison of religion from human society. We deeply hate the poison of religion in human society, which is ten to a thousand times more powerful than the scourge. There is no need for human beings, and there should be no religion for human beings. Religion and human beings are incompatible. "Funny religion, science, and truth are incompatible." "We are completely contrary to all religions." Especially against Christianity.
"This new group of intellectuals were baptized by the spirit of Western science and democracy before and after the May Fourth Movement. They were mostly influenced by scientific supremacy and Marx's historical materialism, as well as the thoughts of Feuerbach, Nietzsche and others; and in the 20th In the early 1990s, he was influenced by the pragmatism propagated by Russell and Dewey when they came to China to give lectures, especially Russell’s anti-Christian stance, so he firmly opposed religion, especially Christianity. However, let’s listen to some different voices at that time. Liang Qichao’s reaction to the non-religious alliance was Fu Tong believed that this approach drowned out the "sincere and solemn spirit" and exposed the people's "weakness of arrogance". Fu Tong believed that Non-Christian movements are inherently religious and non-scientific, and “what they express is emotional and layman’s objection. "Cambridge History of China in the Late Qing Dynasty" points out: "One of the main arguments used by Chinese people against Christianity in the 20th century is that its claims are inconsistent with the results of modern science. Ironically, Protestant missionaries played a major role in introducing Western science to China in the nineteenth century. …Protestants produced more works on science and mathematics than on all other non-religious subjects combined. "The existence of this phenomenon at least tells us that the relationship between religion and science is much more complicated than the so-called opposition.
To sum up the above four reasons for anti-religion, there is probably no such thing as obscurantism, nationalism, etc. doctrine, nationalism, rationalism, scientism and other ideological tendencies, but rarely take into account the complete facts and the depth of academic theories. The second one, that is, political tendencies, should be attributed to Western colonial aggression. In addition to issues regarding teaching methods, the other three are within the scope that we should examine ourselves, right?
Answer: ken_su - Magic Apprentice Level 6-4 10:09
< p>Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844 - August 25, 1900), a famous German philosopher and thinker. Nietzsche was first a linguist and then a philosopher. Or called a free thinker, many of his works contain the content of modern psychology. He is a poet-philosopher full of rebellious spirit. He strongly criticized the traditional Western Christian culture and denied the traditional morality of Christianity. system, advocated the revaluation of all values, and also proposed the theory of superman and the proposition of eternal recurrence, eager to establish a new and powerful ideological and cultural system. In essence, Nietzsche was a nihilist, but he was different from his youth. The thing about Schopenhauer, his spiritual mentor, is that he longs to find a meaning in this nihilistic world, or to create a meaning of existence, in order to affirm the value of human existence. He laid the foundation for later existentialism and was hailed as one of the pioneers of existentialism. However, because some of Nietzsche's ideas were too extreme and too powerful, he was later used by the Nazis and was stigmatized as a "Nazi philosopher." . As he himself wrote in the book, any greatness can be misunderstoodNietzsche’s poetry
The Sun Sets
1
< p>You will not be thirsty for a long time,Scorched heart!
Promises are floating in the atmosphere,
From those who don’t. It blew to me from the mouths of everyone I knew,
The strong cool air came...
My sun shone hotly on my head at noon:
I welcome you, you are here,
The sudden wind,
You, the cool spirits of the afternoon!
The wind blows strangely and purely. .
Isn’t the night looking sideways at me?
The eyes of a tempter
…
Stay strong, My brave heart!
Don’t ask, why? ——
2
My day in life!
The flat wave surface
is already shining with golden light.
The rock radiates heat:
Perhaps at noon
Happiness lies on him and takes a nap? ——
In the green light
The brown abyss still holds out the shadow of happiness.
A day in my life!
It’s almost dusk!
Your eyes have lost
half of their brightness,
tears like dewdrops
are already pouring out,
The vast white sea has flowed quietly
The red light of your love,
Your last wavering eternal happiness.
3
Golden joy, come on!
You are death
The most secret and sweet foretaste of death!
——Am I walking too fast?
Now, my feet are tired,
Your eyes have caught up with me,
Your happiness has caught up with me.
There were only waves and teasing all around.
The sufferings of the past,
Sinking into blue oblivion -
My boat is now at ease.
Storms and sailing—how could I have forgotten them!
The wishes and hopes sank,
The soul and the sea lay peacefully.
The seventh level of loneliness!
I have never felt
the sweet peace is closer to me than now,
the sun’s eyes are warmer than now.
——Isn’t the ice on the top of my mountain still glowing red?
Silver, light, like a fish,
Now my boat is floating on the water...
The morality of stars
On the orbit destined to the star,
Star, what does darkness have to do with you?
Happily drive through this era!
May its misery have nothing to do with you and stay away!
Your glory belongs to the world far away.
For you, sympathy should be considered a crime!
You only obey one commandment: stay pure!
Answer: linnan7060 - Tongsheng Level 1 6-4 14:40
I wrote a paper on Nietzsche, what do you think?
Answer: summeragain - Apprentice Magician Level 2 6-4 19:48
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