1. How much do you know about Confucianism?

Confucianism is one of the hundreds of schools of thought in the pre-Qin period, and its founder is Confucius.

In the pre-Qin period, Confucianism had an equal status with all the other scholars. Confucianism was severely damaged when Emperor Qin Shihuang "burned books and entraped Confucianism." It emerged after Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty implemented ideological suppression in order to maintain autocratic rule by "deposing hundreds of schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone." The concepts of "Confucianism", "Confucianism" and "Confucianism" must be clearly distinguished.

Confucianism as a doctrine, Confucianism as a class, and Confucianism as a belief are the same but different and need to be distinguished. The Confucian classics mainly include the Thirteen Classics of Confucianism.

Confucianism has six classics, "The Book of Songs", "The Book of Documents", "The Book of Rites", "The Book of Music", "The Book of Changes" and "The Spring and Autumn Annals". The First Emperor of Qin "burned books and entraped Confucians". It is said that the "Book of Music" was lost after the fire of Qin. On this basis, the Eastern Han Dynasty added the "Analects of Confucius", "The Classic of Filial Piety" and the Seven Classics; in the Tang Dynasty, the "Book of Zhou" was added "Rites", "Book of Rites", "Spring and Autumn Gongyang Zhuan", "Chun Qiu Guliang Zhuan", "Erya", the first twelve classics; in the Song Dynasty, "Mencius" was added, and later in the Song Dynasty, "The Thirteen Classics Commentary" "Handled down from generation to generation.

The "Thirteen Classics" is the basic work of Confucian culture. In terms of traditional concepts, "Yi", "Poetry", "Book", "Li" and "Spring and Autumn" are called "Classics". "Zuo Zhuan", "Gongyang Zhuan", and "Gu Liang Zhuan" belong to the "biography" of "Spring and Autumn Classic", "Book of Rites", "Xiao Jing", "The Analects of Confucius" and "Mencius" are all "notes". "Erya" is an exegesis work by the Confucian scholars of the Han Dynasty. Later, the "Four Books" refers to "The Great Learning" (a chapter in "Book of Rites"), "The Doctrine of the Mean" (a chapter in "Book of Rites"), "The Analects" and "Mencius", while the Five Classics refers to: "Book of Changes", "Book of Songs", "Book of Songs", "Book of Rites", and "Zuo Zhuan".

2. Some knowledge related to Confucian culture

Overview

Confucian culture was founded by Confucius, carried forward by Mencius and Xunzi, and developed by Dong Zhongshu, Zhu Xi and others. It was continuously expanded and enriched, and was regarded as an authentic school by rulers of all dynasties after the Han Dynasty. Although Confucianism contains many feudal poisons, it also contains countless ideological treasures and has become a precious spiritual wealth of the Chinese people.

Basic characteristics

The development of Confucian culture has a history of 2,500 years. The whole process has gone through four stages, namely:

⑴ Confucius The original pre-Qin Confucianism

⑵The Confucianism of the Han Dynasty represented by Dong Zhongshu

⑶The New Confucianism of the Song and Ming dynasties symbolized by Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism

⑷The modern new Confucianism under the impact of Western learning Confucianism

The original Confucianism in the pre-Qin period took benevolence and propriety as its basic content, ethics as its basis, and humanity as its center. It reflected the humanistic spirit of the Confucian sages and was a "prominent school" at that time. The basic characteristics of Pre-Qin Confucianism:

First, the transfer from ritual and music culture to legal culture

Second, taking ethics as the basis and humanity as the theoretical positioning in mind

Third, the promotion of humanism

Confucianism in the Han Dynasty was an imperial study supported by the government. It took the classics as its form, combined with prophecies and wei, and integrated yin and yang, The ideas of Ming, Dharma, Huang and Lao formed a Confucian system that was different from the new superstitions of the pre-Qin period, which pointed to prophecies and omens that would be fulfilled. New characteristics of Confucianism in the Han Dynasty:

First, politicization of Confucianism

Second, Confucianism as a classic book

Third, Confucianism as theology

Fourth, broad inclusiveness

An important feature of New Confucianism in the Song and Ming dynasties is to philosophize traditional Confucianism. While adhering to the central principles of ethics and morality, it absorbs the philosophical thinking methods of Buddhism and Taoism to enrich the content of thinking. Improve the theoretical level and construct a universe ontology with reason, qi, and heart as the highest categories. New characteristics of Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties:

First, the introduction of the philosophy of Buddhism and Taoism

Second, the moral ideal of eliminating desire and rebuilding rituals

Third, promote the "inner sage" style of studying the world

Modern Confucianism continues the Confucian "Taoism", revives Confucianism, and adheres to the Neo-Confucianism of Song and Ming Dynasties as its main feature. Taking the subject of Confucianism as the basis, absorbing and integrating Western learning, and realistically promote the purpose of Confucianism.

New characteristics of modern New Confucianism:

First, aiding Western learning in Confucianism and integrating Chinese and Western knowledge

Second, New Confucian scholars do not regard traditional Confucianism and Western modernization as opposites

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Third, the sentiment of cultural conservatism

3. The influence of Confucianism on later generations

The most important point is that Confucianism advocates hierarchy and strengthens centralization. , after the transformation of Confucianism into classics, these thoughts became a matter of course, and thus had a positive impact on the stability and development of China's imperial power system for two thousand years.

The transformation of Confucianism into classics made Confucianism, an idealistic ideological doctrine, become Mainstream ideology, after the emergence of the imperial examination, Confucian classics have always been one of the examination subjects, and Confucianism has become the spiritual core of intellectuals.

Of course, the transformation of Confucianism into classics has also caused other Chinese ideas to be squeezed out With the development of history, China's thoughts have gradually developed into a unified trend, and there are always very few "heresies" with fresh ideas, which seriously hinders the formation and development of democratic ideas.

< p> 4. What does Confucian Classics, Confucian Mind, Confucian Neo-Confucianism, and Confucian Qi Studies refer to, and how to understand this area

The courtesy name is Yunsheng, and the nickname is Zheng'an. A native of Taihe (now part of Jiangxi).

Jinshi. He successively served as editor of the Hanlin Academy, director of the Nanjing Imperial College, right minister and left minister of the Nanjing Ministry of Civil Affairs, and Shangshu of the Nanjing Ministry of Civil Affairs.

Later he resigned and started writing. Regarding the relationship between regulating and qi, he believed that qi is in qi and qi is the origin of all things in the world. He gave his own interpretation of Zhu Xili's point of view that after Qi generates all things, one principle disperses into all kinds of principles, which is the principle of one principle and ten thousand principles.

Tai Chi is the general name of all principles, but it is based on Qi. In terms of the relationship between mind and matter, it is believed that the heart is an organ of cognition and also a thing.

The mind can "deduce the number of things and understand the principles of things", but it cannot "range the scope of heaven and earth". Regarding the relationship between nature and reason, I disagree with the distinction between the nature of destiny and the nature of temperament, and believe that there is only one nature, that is, the principle of qi.

He criticized the view of maintaining natural principles and destroying human desires, and advocated the unity of rationality and desire, and the restraint of sexual desires based on rationality. However, he accepted the view that nature is reason and recognized that the reason in his heart is the nature of benevolence, justice, propriety and wisdom.

He is the author of "Kun Zhi Ji", "Zheng'an Preserved Manuscript" and "Zheng'an Continuation Manuscript". (A thinker between Neo-Confucianism and Qi Studies.)

Wang Tingxiang (1474~1544) was a thinker of the Ming Dynasty in China. The courtesy name is Ziheng and the nickname is Junchuan.

A native of Yifeng, Henan (now Lankao, Henan). Jinshi.

He once served as the military officer, the magistrate of Bozhou, the censor of supervision, the minister of the Ministry of War in Nanjing, and the censor of Zuodu of the Metropolitan Procuratorate. In philosophy, he advocates "vitality theory".

It is believed that vitality "gathers and disperses, never dies" and is the ontology of the universe. The universe is not "quiet and motionless", but an "endless" process of vitality.

In terms of epistemology, it advocates "knowing and doing both" and emphasizes "practicing" to obtain "true knowledge". From the perspective of history, we believe that history is evolutionary and that nature and man are victorious.

Politically, we advocate change, develop social production, and restrain powerful people. His thought is an important link in the development from Zhang Zai to Wang Fuzhi, and has a certain status in the history of philosophy.

He is the author of "Wang Family Collection" and "Books Written by Wang Junchuan". There is the "Selected Philosophy of Wang Tingxiang" published by Zhonghua Book Company.

Wang Tingxiang inherited the materialist thoughts of Wang Chong, Fan Zhen and others, absorbed the essence of the philosophical thoughts of Confucius and Zhu Xi, and became one of the unique materialist philosophers in the history of Chinese philosophy. Wang Ting was very knowledgeable in Confucian classics. He made many criticisms of some Confucian scholars, especially the arguments of Neo-Confucianists, and expressed his independent opinions.

He is also very knowledgeable in natural sciences and has made contributions to astronomy and geography. He has discussed agriculture, and also written on music.

Wang Tingxiang is a materialist thinker. He believes that "vital energy" is the origin of the world, "qi" is immortal, and only with "qi" can there be "reason". The "qi" he refers to is matter, which is contrary to the idealistic worldview of Song Confucianism that "there is only this principle before heaven and earth".

He opposed mystery and superstition, opposed theocracy, and emphasized the idea that "man can conquer nature." Wang Tingxiang believed that "there is no nature apart from Qi", and that there is nature when there is life. He denied the so-called "original nature" outside of Qi that some Confucianists imagined, and did not agree with the transcendental theory of "good nature" and "evil nature".

He supported Confucius's view that "nature is similar but habits are far apart", and advocated the theory that "nature is formed by habit". Therefore, he advocated that children should start to develop good habits during their childhood, and should not regard habits as Children are confined at home to expose them to social reality and expand their "knowledge". Wang Tingxiang valued "knowledge from seeing and hearing" and strongly opposed the so-called "knowledge of virtue" by Song Confucianism and Wang Shouren's theory of "leading to conscience".

He believes that knowledge is the product of the combination of "thinking" and "seeing and hearing". It requires practice in practice, which is "true knowledge", and opposes empty and non-practical reading in the study.

He required that "learning" and "thinking" should not be neglected, and that "lecturing" and "practicing" should be emphasized simultaneously. He not only requires the combination of "thinking" and "learning", but also requires the combination of "thinking" and "action".

Therefore, he placed "thinking" in a particularly important role in the learning process.

He believes that there are two methods of learning, namely "knowledge" and "implementation". The best is to have both, and "knowledge and action must be combined" to achieve the goal.

Regarding moral cultivation, Wang Tingxiang, based on his materialist epistemology, proposed methods that opposed the emphasis on introspection and rest, and advocated methods such as internal and external cultivation, a combination of movement and stillness, a weak mind and a peaceful mind, and adapting measures to current conditions. He called people who clung to old prejudices, were ignorant of changing times, and unreasonable, "pedantic," people who were short-sighted, "shallow," and people who flattered people regardless of the country's plans. Despicable", such people are unworthy of appointment.

He advocated starting from self-restraint and few desires, and gradually achieving no desires and no self, so that "Great Harmony" can be achieved. In addition, you should always make up for your mistakes and make yourself new day by day.

Only when everything is in its proper place can it be considered "benevolence". Gu Yanwu (1613~1682) was a materialist thinker in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.

His courtesy name is Ningren, his nickname is Tinglin, and he is from Kunshan, Jiangsu Province. In his youth, he participated in the "Fushe" movement with the purpose of criticizing the bad government in the late Ming Dynasty.

When the Qing soldiers went south, they raised troops to resist the Qing Dynasty. Gu Yanwu's academic achievements are multifaceted.

He inherited the tradition of simple materialism in ancient China, criticized the idealist Neo-Confucianism of Song and Ming Dynasties, and put forward the famous proposition that "Confucian classics is Neo-Confucianism". His legal thoughts also echoed the progressive social trends of the time and were anti-authoritarian.

In view of the bad academic style of the scholar-officials in the late Ming Dynasty who were idle and ignorant, he advocated reading, pragmatism, and practical application of the world, linking academic research with solving social problems. He is the author of "Book of Benefits and Diseases of the Counties and Countries of the World", "Rizhilu", "Five Books on Phonetics", "Collection of Tinglin Poems and Essays", etc.

Under the historical conditions of social turmoil in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, Gu Yanwu realized that the feudal rule was on the verge of a crisis stage where "the present cannot be saved without changing the law." Therefore, he opposed the unchanging and stubborn conservatism. It is pointed out that the laws established by the predecessors cannot predict the development of the situation and have long been a "place for flexibility". If future generations "stick to the old rules" and "stick to their unchanged names", they will definitely cause "big disadvantages". In order to adapt to the "inevitable trend of change", he proposed a series of social reform plans, such as reforming taxes, limiting land rent, implementing land equalization and land reclamation; reforming the monarchy's sole rule and replacing it with bureaucratic rule by the masses; and abolishing the eight-part essay system for recruiting scholars. , implement county recommendation, etc.

Although he also called for "facilitating the ancients and using Xia", he intended to support the ancients and the present to serve the actual reform.

5. What is Confucian classics

Confucian classics, of course, refers to the knowledge of annotating classics. Therefore, when talking about "confucian classics", we must first clarify what "classic" is.

"Shuowen Jiezi" teaches "jing" as "weaving", and Duan Yucai annotates it as "vertical thread", which is extended to mean the thread that goes through the binding book, and then refers to books. However, the "Classics" here certainly does not refer to all books, but refers specifically to Confucian classics. To be clear about this is not enough, because in the past, Confucian scholars made a lot of debates about the scope of "Classics" and even gave rise to the name "Classics". Regarding the study of "The Examination of the Names of the Classics", some people think that the Classics only refers to the writings of Confucius, while others maintain that the Classics is the officially designated Confucian classic.

The main work of classics research is to annotate classics. The so-called "annotations" are to explain the meaning of the words and sentences in the scriptures. However, some annotations were too brief or too old, so later generations made additional annotations to explain them, which are called "sparing".

In addition to commentaries, others such as "explanation", "textual research", "collection of explanations", "righteousness", etc., although the names are different, the methods are mostly similar, and they are all about each word of the scriptures. Study it in detail and hope to understand what it really means. The contents of the classics are difficult to understand and full of controversy, but they are also the principles and sources of legitimacy that explain the order of the universe, politics, moral norms, and even daily life. Therefore, studying the classics has become the most important academic activity since the Han Dynasty.

In addition, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty promoted the study of Confucian classics, which allowed people who were familiar with the classics to receive courtesy, and more people devoted themselves to the study of classics. Therefore, in the Eastern Han Dynasty, there was a saying that "it is better to teach a son a classic than to leave a son full of gold" statement. In "Hanshu Yiwenzhi", the Five Classics and Confucian works are still divided into two categories. During the Six Dynasties, the transition from seven books to four books gradually occurred. By the time "Suishu Jingjizhi" officially classified the academic world at that time as " "Classics, Historiography, Zhuzi, and Collected Works" are divided into four types, namely Confucian classics as the first. This classification method was still accepted by people until the Qing Dynasty.

However, from a historical point of view, the study of classics is to elucidate the annotations that can be changed through unchangeable texts. The annotation activity is equivalent to the publication and elaboration of scholars’ thoughts. Considering the importance of classics If we look at the sanctity of scriptures, we can see that the activities of classical scriptures at the political level are very complex. After the emperors of all dynasties obtained the "Legal Tradition", they all hoped to gain the recognition and support of classics researchers, that is, intellectuals, which is the "Holy Tradition", which is derived from the concepts of family law and teacher's practice and symbolizes the leading authority of classic interpretation. "Orthodox" is different. The acquisition of holy orthodoxy symbolizes that a country not only obtains the right to rule through force, but also obtains legitimacy in terms of social culture and value recognition.

One of the most typical examples is the Qing Dynasty. With its status as a foreign race, it was not easy to break through the Spring and Autumn Thoughts of the "Hua Yi". They actively operated with political power, either killing (such as Literary Prison) or winning over ( Such as opening subjects to obtain scholars, rewarding academics), or interpreting (such as compiling "Sikuquanshu", "History of the Ming Dynasty", "Dayi Jue Mi Lu"), or banning burning, in order to obtain the recognition of the Holy Tradition. In order to display their political ambitions, scholars must, on the one hand, obtain legal support from political forces, and on the other hand, seek ethical basis for argumentation. Therefore, they often influence the governing thinking of the rulers through the interpretation of sacred classics. Under the premise that "scholars and monarchs influence each other", Confucian classics became an important medium of political interaction.

6. What ideas does Confucian classics advocate?

Confucian classics, that is, the study of exegesis of classics, is one of the four major disciplines in ancient my country.

There are two theories about the age when Confucian classics came into being. One is that it was founded by Confucius, because Confucius revised the ancient classics into the "Six Classics" and used them to teach his disciples, which opened the way to "passing on the classics". Another way is to "preach" the Confucian style of study; another theory is that Confucian classics began in the era of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, marked by the establishment of doctors of the Five Classics by the imperial court, and proficiency in Confucian classics was used as the criterion for selecting officials, thus making the interpretation of Confucian classics a specialized knowledge, and also Become a kind of science. During the Confucius period, the annotation of classics was limited to private teaching and did not form a common knowledge in society. Strictly speaking, the formal formation of classics should be after the study of annotation became an official school in the Han Dynasty.

Since then, from the Han Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, although the form has been different and the content has changed, Confucian classics has always been the highest official knowledge in China and played a very important role in the operation of the entire feudal social system. role. After the formation of Confucian classics, in the Han Dynasty, modern classics and ancient classics were divided into modern classics and ancient classics due to the different texts of classics; during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the division between "Southern Studies" and "Northern Studies" was formed due to the political and geographical division; the Sui and Tang Dynasties were unified After that, the study of Yishu, which was more advanced than before, emerged; in the Song and Ming Dynasties, it developed into Neo-Confucian classics; in the Qing Dynasty, Confucian scholars inherited the tradition of ancient Chinese classics in the Han Dynasty, carried forward textual research and exegesis, and achieved unprecedented success. The achievements formed the so-called "Qianjia School" and reached the pinnacle of the development of ancient Chinese classics.

The development of Confucian classics originated from Confucian classics. At the same time, it served as the royal doctrine of monarchy. Although it was subject to various rigidities and constraints, the talented people of the past dynasties still put forward many extremely important ideas in the discussions of Confucian classics. The ideological originality shows the glorious side of Chinese scholars. For more than 2,000 years, Confucian classics has continued and developed ancient Chinese social concepts and national thoughts. A history of Confucian classics is also a history of ideas of ancient Chinese society.