Claim non-scientific theories or methods without scientific basis as science or some claim that is more scientific than science, such as astrology, Velikovsky collision theory, Lysenko’s proletarian inheritance Science, Daniken's theory of ancient astronauts, etc. Pseudoscience is different from temporary scientific errors. It is a social and historical phenomenon. The key is that it pretends to be science at a specific time and place, treats as science something that has been proven by the scientific community to be unscientific, and cannot or cannot do so for a long time. Refuse to provide rigorous evidence. There are a large number of non-scientific things, and they usually have their own value, such as literature, art, magic, etc. Once someone claims them as science, the claim itself becomes a kind of pseudo-science.

Pseudoscience refers to “knowledge” that is purported to be factual or scientifically supported but does not actually conform to the scientific method. Pseudoscience is some false "science" or scam, often decorated with scientific terms, but in fact it has nothing to do with science in nature.

Some people who support pseudoscience simply do so because they misunderstand the nature of science or scientific methods; but there are also people who deliberately fabricate and spread false knowledge to deceive the public in order to gain money or Other interests. Some people think that all pseudoscience is just harmless entertainment; others (such as Richard Dawkins) think that all pseudoscience is harmful. Philosopher of science Popper famously said: "Science is often wrong, but pseudoscience is sometimes right."

Identification of pseudoscience

Pseudoscience cannot withstand the test of scientific common sense (and scientific methods) and can be identified by the following characteristics:

No experiment Make assertions based on evidence

Making assertions when there are contradictory examples

Cannot conduct repeated experiments

Assertions are illogical

In Choose only one when there are multiple possible explanations

If a practice or body of knowledge claims to be consistent with accepted scientific research norms, but clearly violates these norms (mainly manifested in misunderstandings) using scientific methods), it can be called pseudoscience. There are many reasons for identifying pseudoscience. Popper believed that astrology was a pseudoscience because it always made very vague predictions that could not be falsified. Paul Thagard believes that astrology is a pseudoscience because astrologers rarely develop their own theories, have no intention of trying to evaluate their own theories against other theories, and selectively consider the evidence. Thagard believes that pseudoscience tends to focus on superficial similarities rather than causation.

Pseudoscience is also distinguished from prophecy, theology, and metaphysics that claim to gain insight into the physical world through "scientific" means. As long as a system of thought derived from God or enlightenment does not claim to be scientific and does not overturn existing scientific theories, it should not be regarded as pseudoscience.

Some common beliefs or assertions in popular science may not meet scientific standards and may even contain some scientific fantasies. Therefore, popular science is likely to blur the boundaries between science and pseudoscience among the public. Effect. In fact, popular science is likely to originate from or be disseminated by people who are not trained in scientific methodology and do not know what peer review is.

Promotion of items

Many unscrupulous businessmen like to create their own nouns to make their products appear high-end. One example is "negative ions". When many people hear "negative ions", they naturally think of charged "anions", but it turns out that the so-called negative ions are actually translated from the Japanese "マイナスイオン (Minus ion)", and this term is actually made up by Japanese businessmen. No. Furthermore, people who have listened to wrong information will continue to use it and "rationalize" the wrong information. For example, some women will say: I have used "ION" brand hair straightener to straighten my hair, and "negative ions" will be produced in the process. Make your hair straight again. Because I have used this "negative ion hair straightener" and the effect is very good, so "negative ions" exist and are credible.

Another example is melatonin, which was once popular in mainland China. In the promotion of melatonin, melatonin, whose pharmacological effects are still controversial, was unrestrictedly touted and named melatonin. The pineal gland that secretes melatonin is named the melatonin body in order to mislead the public in promoting products. [1][2]

Using self-created "scientific" concepts and misunderstanding scientific concepts to promote products that do not have or even do not exist is a common promotion method in the health care product industry. In addition to the above Mentioned melatonin, there have also been cases of nucleic acid health products [3] and deep-sea fish oil in mainland China.

Religious examples

Many so-called religious people like to use their "science" to explain some phenomena and say that this is reasonable. See Intelligent Design

Pseudoscience and Ideology

In the former Soviet Union and the Republic of China, the Marxist ideological system was once regarded as a "universal science" However, the advanced science in the Western capitalist world serves capitalism and imperialism. It is pseudo-science and should be banned.

In political movements, Western sciences such as relativity, cybernetics, and genetics are called "bourgeois pseudoscience" and "idealist pseudoscience," while genuine pseudoscientific theories from the Soviet Union (such as Lysenko's theory) are regarded as "advanced Science” hype.

In these countries, some political opportunists engaged in scientific research often use "pseudoscience" as a political weapon to attack dissidents. For example, from the late 1940s to the 1950s, Lysenko, the president of the Soviet Academy of Agricultural Sciences, declared Morgan-Mendel's genetic theory to be pseudoscience. In 1951, the Soviet Academy of Sciences launched a criticism of cybernetics and oscillation theory, declaring them "pseudoscience".

In 1948, the work of Grigory Vasilyevich Kisunik, the founder of the Soviet anti-missile system and a corresponding member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, was criticized for "...the text of the book is full of foreign Surnames: Maxwell, Hertz, Helmholtz..." (Comments from the Academic Committee of the Soviet Academy of Sciences) and were disqualified from the Stalin Prize selection. In 1951, Kaftanov, Minister of Higher Education of the Soviet Union, declared in a report to Voroshilov, Vice Chairman of the Council of Ministers, that “the school of thought that is hostile to Marxism-Leninism is spreading to colleges and universities through physics.” Reflected in textbooks The role of Russian and Soviet scholars in the development of physics was very inadequate, and books were filled with the names of foreign scientists…”.

Conceptual analysis

The difference between pseudoscience and science

Science can be tested through strict scientific methods, and no counterexamples are found within its valid scope and it has credible Repeatability. Although pseudoscience claims to have scientific basis, its examples cannot be verified by scientific experiments, and even hinder strict verification.

The difference between pseudoscience and protoscience

Protoscience is a theory that is in the hypothesis or incomplete stage and has not yet been confirmed by science and has not been overturned. Protoscience does not object to scientific verification, but due to reasons such as its incomplete results (hypnotism, etc.) and difficulty in verification (such as ancient astronaut theory, quarks), no conclusion can be made at this stage.

The difference between pseudoscience and scientific hoax

Although the "knowledge" claimed by pseudoscience is not supported by science, its proponents may not have any subjective motive for profit or deception. Some scientific scams borrow pseudoscience to achieve their goals, but pseudoscience itself is a neutral concept.

It is not science, but it is not pseudo-science either.

Science is one of human knowledge systems, but it is not the only knowledge system. Outside of science, there is a lot of useful knowledge that is not pseudoscience.

Knowledge that has not been completely summarized and verified cannot be incorporated into the scientific system, but it is not pseudoscience. Such as daily life experience and intuition.

Knowledge systems other than science cannot be judged as pseudoscience. For example, literature and art systems are not suitable for evaluation by science or pseudoscience.

Scientific Issues of Traditional Chinese Medicine

Traditional Chinese medicine is a phenomenological theoretical system developed based on practical experience, and has not yet received a good scientific explanation. The theory of traditional Chinese medicine is based on the traditional Chinese philosophical worldview, such as yin and yang, qi and blood, etc. These contents are not recognized by modern science. In practice, there is also controversy over whether the theories of yin and yang, deficiency and excess can effectively guide actual diagnosis and treatment. Supporters believe that a large number of examples can prove it, but its underlying operating mechanism is still under study. Opponents believe that TCM theory is a reluctant explanation of complex human physiological phenomena based on the simple and simple "philosophical concepts" of early China. Its methods cannot be considered fundamentally scientific.

Part of the treatment methods of traditional Chinese medicine, such as traditional Chinese medicine and acupuncture, have gradually been recognized by modern science. However, the theory of traditional Chinese medicine based on the theory of yin and yang and the five elements has not received the same recognition.

In order to attract business, some quack doctors deliberately exaggerate the efficacy of traditional Chinese medicine, and deify yin and yang, qi and blood, organs, meridians, etc. into advanced biomedical technologies, and even use the scientific term holographic. It is claimed that traditional Chinese medicine can cure many diseases that are currently incurable, such as hepatitis B, psoriasis and other diseases. These are typical manifestations of pseudoscience.

In contemporary research on the philosophy of science, more and more philosophers of science tend to regard whether a theory has a clear logical structure and can be corrected as the main feature of the overall view of science, that is, science and Delimitation of pseudoscience.

The "scientific" explanation of traditional Chinese medicine

Some theories of traditional Chinese medicine do not have the basic nature of science (for example: the theory of "Yin Yang and Five Elements" only reflects the universal existence of things phenomenologically) related phenomena, but cannot be scientifically falsified, nor does it conform to scientific (not philosophical) universal principles), and its theoretical system is not compatible with modern science. However, many people try to interpret the basic theories of traditional Chinese medicine with modern scientific theories, and impose scientific explanations on concepts such as "yin", "yang", "qi", "blood", "viscera" and "meridians" in traditional Chinese medicine theory. Those who carry out fraudulent activities also try their best to confuse the concepts of traditional Chinese medicine and science, and mythologize traditional Chinese medicine as a miraculous medical skill that can cure all diseases.