The fundamental meaning of Confucian "rule by courtesy" is "difference", even if the noble, the humble, the old and the young have their own special code of conduct. Only when aristocrats, young and old, old and young, and relatives and friends have their own rituals can we realize the ideal society of Jun Jun, minister, father, son, brother, brother, husband and wife in the eyes of Confucianism. The governance of a country depends on the stability of hierarchical order. Confucian "ceremony" is also a form of law. It takes the maintenance of patriarchal hierarchy as its core, and it will be punished by "punishment" if it violates the norms of "ceremony"
The Confucian theory of "ruling by virtue" is to advocate moral edification and education. Confucianism believes that no matter whether human nature is good or evil, people can be influenced and educated by morality. This kind of education is a psychological change, which makes people feel good and ashamed but not evil. This is the most thorough, fundamental and positive way, which is beyond the reach of legal sanctions.
The Confucian theory of "rule by man" is an idea that attaches importance to the particularity of man, his possible moral development and his sympathy, and manages his rule as a changeable "man" with complex choice initiative and ethics. From this perspective, "rule by virtue" is closely related to "rule by man". "Rule by virtue" emphasizes the process of enlightenment, while "rule by man" emphasizes the moralist himself, which is a kind of saint politics. Because Confucianism believes that "personality" has great appeal, on this basis, it has developed into extreme "rule of man" doctrine such as "governing the people for politics" and "governing the people cannot".
The above is the introduction of Baidu!
Personally, I think Confucianism values courtesy! In the later Mohist thought, Zhai, the founder of Mohist school, studied Confucianism in his early years, and later thought that Confucian rituals were too complicated, so he abandoned Confucianism!
First speaker:
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Legalist school is one of the most important people in pre-Qin philosophers. They are famous for advocating the "rule of law" of "ruling the country according to law" and put forward a set of theories and methods. This provided an effective theoretical basis for the later establishment of the centralized Qin Dynasty. The later Han Dynasty inherited the centralization of authority and legal system of the Qin Dynasty and was the political and legal subject of the ancient feudal society in China.
Legalists have made great contributions to jurisprudence, and made fruitful discussions on the origin, essence and function of law and the relationship between law and social economy, requirements of the times, state power, ethics, customs, natural environment, population and human nature. But legalists also have shortcomings. For example, it exaggerates the role of the law, emphasizes the use of heavy punishment to govern the country, and "punishes punishment with punishment", and also imposes heavy penalties on misdemeanors and superstitious about the role of the law. They believe that human nature is to pursue interests, and there is no moral standard, so we should use interests and honors to induce people to do it. For example, in the war, high rewards are given for meritorious service, including official positions, so as to motivate soldiers and generals to fight bravely together. This may be one of the reasons for Qin Jun's strong fighting capacity. The role of Legalists in destroying the six countries and unifying China should be affirmed, although there are still some shortcomings.
Legalist thought is briefly introduced as follows:
Oppose the ritual system
Legalists attach importance to law and oppose Confucian "rites". In their view, the emerging landlord class at that time opposed the hereditary privilege of monopolizing economic and political interests by nobles and demanded private ownership of land, which was a fair and correct proposition. The etiquette system of maintaining aristocratic privileges is backward and unfair.
The role of law
The first function is to "settle disputes", that is, to clarify the ownership of things. Shen Dao, one of the legalists, made a very simple analogy: "A rabbit went and a hundred people chased it. Accumulate rabbits in the market and ignore them. No rabbits, no arguments. " A rabbit ran away, and many people chased it, but they didn't look at so many rabbits in the market. It's not that you don't want rabbits, but that the ownership has been determined and you can't argue any more, otherwise you will violate the law and be punished.
The second function is to "make meritorious deeds and fear violence", that is, to encourage people to make meritorious deeds and make those who are lawless feel afraid. The ultimate goal of prosperity is to make Qiang Bing rich and win the war of annexation.
The theory of human nature of "likes and dislikes"
Legalists believe that all people have the nature of "liking advantages and avoiding disadvantages" or "seeking advantages and avoiding disadvantages". As Guan said, a businessman runs around day and night, driving thousands of miles doesn't feel far, because interests attract him ahead. Fishermen are not afraid of difficulties and dangers, and they don't care if they sail against the current for a hundred miles. It is also the pursuit of fishing interests. Based on the same idea, Shang Yang concluded: "Life has likes and dislikes,
Therefore, the people can rule. Historical view of "violating the past and not following the present"
Legalists oppose conservative retro ideas and advocate reform. They believe that history is developing forward, and all laws and systems should develop with the development of history, neither retrogressive nor conformist. Shang Yang clearly put forward the idea of "violating the past and not following the present". Han Fei further developed Shang Yang's proposition that "time-shifting chaos is difficult to cure", and he satirized the conservative Confucianism as a fool waiting for him.
Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai advocated attaching importance to law, power and skill respectively, each with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, a master of legalism, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. Law refers to perfecting the legal system, and potential refers to the power of the monarch, and it is necessary to monopolize the military and political power. Art refers to the strategies and means of controlling ministers, mastering political power and enforcing laws and regulations. It is mainly to detect and prevent the crime of rebellion and maintain the status of the monarch. Legalist thought is fundamentally different from the form of democracy and rule of law that we advocate now. The biggest thing is that legalists strongly advocate the centralization of monarchy, and it is absolute. Pay attention to this. We can selectively learn and make use of other legalist ideas.
The most important thing is that the legalist thought is a general generalization, and the ideological system is based on the rule of law!
Then there should be a strategist:
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China's ancient military strategists' management thought is an important part of China's brilliant prose in ancient times, and it is the sum total of our military strategists' rational understanding of war decision-making, command, overall planning and its laws.
The management thoughts of China ancient military strategists contained many scientific management viewpoints. It regards various objective factors such as politics, economy, military affairs, astronomy, geography and international relations as the conditions for winning or losing, and regards them as a unified whole of interrelated management decisions. At the same time, it takes the subjective orientation of war, that is, the military quality of the subject (so-called "general ability" and "general talent") as the basic factor.
The discussion of strategy can be said to be the richest aspect of China's ancient military strategist management thought, which reveals many regular principles that must still be observed today. Many famous sayings have become household management maxims, such as: "Know yourself and know yourself, fight a hundred battles, fight a hundred battles", "Be prepared for danger in times of peace", "prepare for a rainy day", "attack from afar", "take it by surprise" and "avoid reality and be empty". "If peace is important to the soldiers, we will unite as one", "The three armed forces will win", "The three armed forces can seize the air and the general can seize the heart", "Seize the enemy's opportunity, use it quickly, and then attack him by surprise" and so on. Some basic principles used in the management maxims of these famous military strategists are not only consistent with modern scientific theories in basic spirit, but also have obvious origins in language.
The main idea of a strategist should be sophistry!
Then talk about Taoism:
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In China, Confucianism and Taoism often permeate and complement each other. Confucianism advocates "the way of civil and military affairs should be relaxed one by one" and "a gentleman can bend and stretch". If conditions permit, he will actively struggle. When he meets resistance, he will turn a corner and retreat to the mountains. Therefore, the "recluse" and "inaction" of Taoism just reflect the flexible side of China culture, which can be said to be a supplement to Confucianism.
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Taoism regards Tao as the origin and universal law of the world, and holds that heaven does nothing and Tao is natural. On this basis, it puts forward political and military strategies such as doing nothing, respecting women, and combining rigidity with softness.
The political thought of ancient Taoism is more complicated than that of Confucianism. Laozi's thoughts are mainly "governing by doing nothing" and "a small country with few people"; Zhuangzi escaped from politics and was a master of monarchism. Yang Zhu said, "We don't lose a penny. If we are not good to the world, the world will be ruled." While inheriting Laozi's thought of "governing by doing nothing", Huang Lao's Taoists combined the thoughts of other schools, such as the political skills of Legalists. Ruan Ji and Ji Kang in Wei and Jin Dynasties practiced political personal disobedience. Since then, Taoist political views have been transformed into Taoist political thoughts, which I am not familiar with, so I omitted.
There is a view in western political science that "the government acts as a night watchman" and "the government that manages least is the best government". Laozi's inaction has many similarities with this. At the same time, Laozi's "I do nothing, the people are the standard" has many similarities with Hayek's "spontaneous order", but Laozi's inaction is a warning to the authoritarian government, and those western ideas are all derived from the concept of freedom and democracy. Laozi's "small country with few people" is about the state of natural villages in ancient society, but it has many similarities with the ideal of autonomy in modern society.
Zhuangzi's thought of avoiding the world makes people think that the whole Taoism advocates avoiding the world. In fact, Zhuangzi's critical spirit of social politics is unparalleled, and he can be said to be the teacher of the theory of no monarch in ancient times. Through Ruan Ji, Bao Jingyan, the incompetent son and Deng Mu, this thought became a valuable resource for Huang Zongxi to criticize the autocratic monarchy system.
Yang Zhu is regarded as a typical selfish person, but their selfishness is based on not harming the interests of others, which is a bold rebellion against China's collective standard thought. Quite a bit of the image of modern "economic man", if their political ideal becomes a reality, it is the pre-Qin version of "Pareto Optimality".
People still have a misunderstanding of Taoism, that is, the representative of Machiavelli. In fact, Machiavelli is related to Taoism, but it was originally the patent of Legalists. Later, Huang Lao's Taoists combined Taoism with Legalism to form the so-called "people governing the south" technique. Huang Lao Taoists, on the other hand, carry forward the thought of inaction and advocate quietness and autonomy. The prosperity of the Han and Tang Dynasties and the Song Dynasty were all related to Huang.
Old-timers are closely related.
During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Ruan Ji and Ji Kang practiced personal disobedience in politics, which was significantly different from Gandhi's non-violent non-cooperation movement in India and Martin Luther's non-violent mass direct action movement in the United States. As for metaphysics in Wei and Jin Dynasties, it is just a fig leaf that the rulers have endured and blackmailed, leaving behind the statement that mistakes made by their country are empty talk.
Then talk about Mohism:
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Confucianism emphasizes governing the country by virtue and advocates exemplary role; Mohism follows the road of totalitarianism and advocates obedience to superiors (Shang Tong). I'm afraid everyone is familiar with the phrase "nothing in the world is right", which comes from Mozi.
Mozi was the founder of Mohism, a great thinker and politician in the early Warring States period, and a natural scientist with outstanding contributions. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, a hundred schools of thought contended. hundred schools of thought said that the academic atmosphere was very active and many thinkers and scientific schools emerged. Mohism is one of the most important schools.
Mozi's name is Zhai, and the year of birth and death is unknown. Modern scholars generally believe that Mozi was born around 476 BC and died around 390 BC. It has been verified that Mozi was born about 40 years ago in Zhou (480 BC) and died about 6 years ago in Zhou Weilie (420 BC).
Mozi's birthplace is also controversial. Historical Records Biography of Meng Xun said that he was a doctor of the Song Dynasty. Lu Chunqiu, of course, considers himself a native of Lu. It is also said that he was originally from the Song Dynasty and later lived in Shandong for a long time. Mozi may have belonged to the "scholar" class at that time, but he himself was once a craftsman who made utensils and had rich craftsmanship. It is said that his skill in making guarding city equipment is better than that of the most famous craftsman Lu Ban in history. He once defended the city against Lu Ban in front of King Hui of Chu, and finally defeated Lu Ban.
According to legend, Mozi was a beginner of Confucianism, but because he was dissatisfied with the cumbersome "rites" advocated by Confucianism, he learned the spirit of hard work and simplicity from Dayu, so he founded Mohism on his own. Mozi's theory had a great influence in the ideological circle at that time, and it was also called "excellent learning" with Confucianism. Mohism is the main opponent of Confucianism. Mozi has many disciples, mostly from the lower classes. They formed a
A well-organized political group has very strict discipline requirements. These people can bear hardships and stand hard work, be diligent in experiments, fight bravely and engage in productive labor at ordinary times. Mozi and his disciples do good things for people, even at the expense of their own lives. Therefore, Huainanzi said: "One hundred and eighty people serving in Mozi can make them go through fire and water and never return to their heels." Moreover, their achievements have not been rewarded, and their kindness has not been rewarded, leading a very simple and hard life.
Mozi devoted his life to the just cause of helping the poor. Ban Gu answered the guest in the play: "The mat in the cave is not warm, and the ink is not sudden." That is to say, Mozi, like Confucius, worked hard for the world all day, and didn't even have time to warm the mat and dye the stove chimney black. He "worked day and night, taking self-suffering as the extreme", and wandered among vassal States for a long time to publicize his political opinions.
According to legend, he once prevented the powerful Chu State from attacking the weak Song State and carried out the idea of "loving the public and not attacking". Later, Luyang wanted to attack Zheng. When Mozi knew about it, he reasoned and advised Luyang not to attack Zheng. He "guards the south" and advocates "storing scholars" to guard. He visited Chu many times and presented books to King Hui of Chu. But later he refused the fief given to him by the king of Chu and left the state of Chu. Mozi came to Qi in his later years in an attempt to stop Xiangzi Niu from attacking Lu, but he failed. The King of Yue asked Mozi to be an official and promised him 500 Li of land. Mozi took "listen to my words and use my way (listen to my words and act according to my principles)" as a condition to go, regardless of fiefs and titles, in order to realize his political ambitions and ideological opinions.
Politically, Mohism represents the interests of small producers and the small private class. Mozi's theory of "God's will and understanding" is still inseparable from the traditional thought of Yin and Zhou Dynasties, but it has been endowed with the content of "non-destiny and universal love" to counter the Confucian thought of "God's will" and "love for the poor". Mozi believes that "one person's life is a great harm to the world" and strongly advocates "loving each other and bringing out the best in each other". There should be no difference between relatives and friends. He has the dedication of "sticking to his heels and benefiting the world".
His thought of "no attack" reflected the people's intention of opposing predatory wars at that time. He put forward the ideas of "unhappy", "saving money" and "saving burial" and opposed the decadent life of ruling nobles. He realized the basis of working human life and put forward the idea of emphasizing production and "those who rely on strength live, those who don't lose strength don't live" Politically, he advocated improving the social and economic status of workers and small producers, and advocated that "the hungry must eat, the cold must wear, the workers must give relief, and the chaos must be cured", and put forward "Shang Xian" and "Shang Tong"
Point of view, that "officials are impermanent and expensive, and the people have no end."
Mozi made an in-depth study of knowledge and logic, formulated "three tables" as the standard of understanding truth, and put forward the materialist epistemology of "not by its name, but by its name". Mozi's educational thought is to "practice hard and keep discipline" and put forward the educational purpose of "promoting the benefits of the world and eliminating the harm of the world"
Mohism was once a "prominent school" in the pre-Qin period, but it declined in the Han Dynasty. However, the spirit of Mohism has not been lost, and the chivalrous men after the Han Dynasty are all successors of the spirit of "universal love" of Mohism. The chivalrous spirit of equality and mutual assistance of China Citizens' Socialist Party, which is "brothers all over the world", is, to a great extent, the true biography of Mohism. The spiritual source of China's poems and chivalrous novels praising chivalrous spirit is closely related to Mohism. The spread of Mohism at the bottom of China civil society has no less influence on China culture than Confucianism and Taoism.