A civil servant refers to a person who represents the country in managing social public affairs, exercising state power and performing state official duties. The titles of civil servants vary from country to country. In Britain, they are called "civil servants" or "civil servants". The United States is called "government employee". Generally called civil servants or civil servants. The so-called civil service system is the general term for the management of civil servants according to law through the formulation of civil service law. The establishment, development and perfection of the civil service system is an important symbol to measure the maturity of a country's democratic politics. In the process of carrying out the civil service system, China has actively absorbed and boldly borrowed the successful experience of the western civil service system, but this absorption and reference is not a copy. From the essence of social system, the civil service system implemented in China is essentially different from that in the West.
(A) Comparison of the scope of Chinese and Western civil servants
Generally speaking, there are three basic types of definition of the scope of civil servants in countries around the world:
One is the small-scale type represented by Britain, which mainly refers to non-elected and non-politically appointed officials in the central government system, excluding elected or politically appointed cabinet members and administrative officials such as ministers and political secretaries. Simply put, it is a permanent civilian except political officials. It does not include political officials, judicial officials, military personnel and other personnel who pay their annual salary from the state treasury.
The second type is the medium-range type represented by the United States. They call all public officials in central government organs civil servants, including administrative officials and administrative officials. However, the civil service law only applies to the government. At the same time, the staff of American institutions and managers of state-owned enterprises also belong to the category of civil servants.
The third is the large-scale model represented by Japan and France. Including all public officials from the central government to local government agencies, public officials in cities and villages, as well as congressional staff, judges, prosecutors, staff of state-owned enterprises and institutions. Compared with the first two categories, the scope is wider.
It can be seen that different countries define the scope of civil servants in different ways and methods, but in general, for western countries, all those who engage in public services in national and local government agencies and public organizations are civil servants. In other words, western countries have a wide range of civil servants.
Civil servants in China refer to the staff of state administrative organs at all levels except workers, including members of people's governments at all levels, non-governmental members of governments at all levels except workers, and members of institutions exercising government functions, such as the staff of the State Patent Office, the Tax Bureau and other units. Therefore, the division of the scope of civil servants in China is relatively strict.
This division has the following characteristics: First, it emphasizes the administrative nature of work organization. That is, only those who hold positions, exercise administrative power and perform administrative functions in state administrative organs at all levels belong to civil servants; Second, it embodies the characteristics of China's political system. China does not implement the two-party system and multi-party system in western countries, and there is no problem of taking turns to govern, so there is no distinction between administrative officers and administrative officers, so government officials are all civil servants; Third, the source of wage payment is not used as the basis for dividing civil servants and non-civil servants; The fourth is to exclude workers from the scope of civil servants. This is obviously different from the western capitalist countries' practice of dividing the staff paid by the state treasury into civil servants.
From the end of 19, "civil servant" and "civil servant system" gradually became common terms in public management, especially government management and even daily life, while the corresponding "civil servant" and "civil servant system" became popular only after World War II. In English, both "civil servant" and "civil servant" mean "civil servant", but the former is a singular noun and the latter is collective noun, which means all civil servants.
Countries have different names for civil servants, such as "civil servants" in Japan, Germany and France, "professional civil servants" and "government employees" in the United States, but generally speaking, civil servants refer to staff who work in the state administrative organs of developed capitalist countries (including some countries in the third world), are appointed through non-election procedures, do not advance and retreat with the cabinet, and once hired, hold office for a long time without fault.
The civil service system is a set of rules, regulations and management systems about the recruitment, examination, assessment, transfer, promotion, reward and punishment, training, salary, welfare, retirement and resignation of civil servants and classified management determined by capitalist countries through laws or decrees. If the famous 1854 Northcott Quweilian Report (the report on the reorganization of British civil servants) is regarded as the symbol of the birth of the British civil service system, then the western civil service system (civil service system) has experienced a historical evolution process of nearly 150 years.
Historically, the civil service system was obviously influenced by the personnel system such as the imperial examination system, the examination system and the separate management of titles in China feudal countries. Western scholars even admit that the modern civil service system can be found in almost all aspects of China's feudal bureaucracy. But it is not a simple copy, plagiarism.
The earliest civil service system in Britain was gradually formed and perfected by the bourgeoisie in the process of opposing the feudal monarch "knighthood" and summing up the experience and lessons of the bourgeois "party sharing system" 1805, there is a situation in which a government agency in the UK has a registrar. /kloc-At the beginning of the 9th century, the British Governor-General in India took some reform measures against the corrupt personnel system of the East India Company, which also had a great impact on China. 1853, according to the instructions of the British government. Charles Qu William and Stanford Nosko made a detailed investigation and study on the civil service system of the government and the personnel system of the East India Company, and drafted the Report on Establishing a Permanent Civil Service System in Britain, commonly known as the Qu Knowles Report, which listed the disadvantages of the civil service system, suggested that officials should be hired through public examinations, and put forward systematic ideas on examination methods, the use of officials, hierarchical management, assessment, promotion, treatment and transfer. 1855 In February, the Cabinet of Palmas issued an Order in Council on the recruitment of civil servants of the Royal Government, and decided to set up a three-member civil service committee to be responsible for the examination and selection of civil servants. After more than a dozen reforms, the civil service system was formally established.
Influenced by Britain, the United States also reformed the civil service system. The current civil service system in the United States is developed on the basis of "political party distribution system". 1883 passed the "civil service system law", that is, the "pendleton law", but failed to eradicate the "distribution system". Only under the political system in which the two parties take turns to govern in the United States, the "distribution system" is limited to the ruling class and the upper class.
Because France has kept the feudal bureaucracy for a long time, it was not until President Charles de Gaulle issued a decree in 1959 and promulgated and implemented the Charter of French Civil Servants that the modern civil servant system was really established. Japan completely imitates the American model.
(C) the characteristics of the civil service system in western countries
The western civil service system is the result of long-term exploration and practice in the administrative field in western countries. Its establishment has realized the right of all citizens to work in the government and hold public office; Its successful operation has opened up a new era of administrative rule of law and become the common wealth in the treasure house of human civilization.
The characteristics of the civil service system in western countries are as follows:
1, public examination, merit-based recruitment
This is the most important principle of the western civil service system, which emphasizes equal opportunity, open competition and merit-based admission.
2. Strict assessment and merit-based rewards.
Assessment is an important part of the civil service system and a central link to improve work efficiency. Western countries attach great importance to this and stipulate it in the civil service law or related laws.
This position is permanent.
A major feature of the civil service system is that it is "free from dismissal without fault" and the position is permanent. The administrative officials shall be appointed for life. There is a delicate relationship between senior civil servants and administrative officials in Britain. Generally speaking, they cooperate well, because the administrative officer can not do without the administrative officer, and the administrative officer also depends on them to realize his ideas. The progress of science and technology requires professional knowledge, which administrative officials usually do not have. Modern administration needs a gestation period, probation period and continuity, but ministers who are re-elected frequently do not have these, so senior civil servants who dominate these aspects have greater real power. Civil servants in the ranks have accumulated experience and knowledge for a long time, mastered all kinds of files, information and data, and have human resources at their disposal. They are powerful people, and administrative officials will not offend them easily. Otherwise, they put administrative officials in trouble by delaying and stranding, making it difficult to implement policies and reforms.
4. Legal guarantee
Western countries have special laws and regulations on civil servants, and have detailed provisions on their status, rights, obligations and rights protection, so that their careers are stable and guaranteed by law. .
5, more generous wages and benefits.
(D) the development trend of the civil service system in western countries
1. Diversified forms of employment.
The selection system, appointment system, examination system and appointment system are used together, with the traditional examination system as the main form. On the one hand, the traditional examination and employment system has narrowed the scope, on the other hand, the traditional basic employment form has become more flexible and targeted.
2. Examination methods are developing towards quantification.
(1) The appraisal method is linked to "Position Classification".
(2) Using the point-by-point scoring method and referring to the standard scoring line, the factors are evaluated.
(3) Lifelong vocational training:
① Strengthen the introductory training of basic skills training for civil servants at all levels.
② Strengthen on-the-job training.
Personnel management is developing in the direction of modernization.
It mainly includes: personnel management develops in the direction of modernization in theory and method; The modernization of personnel management means the use of modern mechanical equipment and electronic equipment, such as computers, television telephones and closed-circuit television.
The application of scientific methods of classified management is mainly "job classification".
(5) Comparison between Chinese and Western civil service systems.
1. From the perspective of rights and obligations, there are both similarities and significant differences between Chinese and western civil servants.
The common point of civil servants' rights and obligations in China and western countries is that they all stipulate that civil servants should act according to law, be loyal to their duties, serve the public, observe discipline, not engage in business, not participate in profit-making activities related to their own departments, not take part-time jobs, and so on. The differences are reflected in two aspects: first, western countries emphasize that the rights and obligations of local civil servants are generally limited to the service area, while in China, all civil servants enjoy the same rights and obligations, which are not limited by the service area at all; Secondly, western countries emphasize the "political neutrality" of civil servants, that is, the work of civil servants is not affected by party struggles. For example, the civil service laws of various countries clearly stipulate that civil servants are not allowed to participate in political party election activities and fund-raising activities in support of elections, hold public offices arising from elections and political appointments, and accept political donations. The purpose of stipulating "political neutrality" is to avoid the confusion of work and the instability of the official team caused by the "party sharing system" in the political environment of multi-party competition, so as to prevent professional civil servants from being involved in political struggles, ensure the orderly work of the government, stabilize the civil servants, and maintain policy continuity and political stability. But in fact, it is impossible to achieve "political neutrality" completely. In China, all civil servants must adhere to the basic line of China and receive education from Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory and Theory of Three Represents. The establishment of China's civil service system is to serve the implementation of the party's basic line and provide organizational guarantee, which is essentially different from the "political neutrality" advertised by the western civil service system. As we all know, as a superstructure, the civil service system of the national political system must rely on and serve the fundamental political and economic system of the country. Because of different national conditions and cultural traditions, it must have its own characteristics.
2. There are differences in the recruitment and assessment of civil servants between western countries and China.
The basis of selecting civil servants in western countries is whether they have the knowledge and ability needed for the post. Therefore, the objective and fair competitive examination is adopted to ensure that truly outstanding talents have the opportunity to hold public office, which is conducive to improving the quality of civil servants and overcoming the unhealthy trend in the appointment of government officials. The assessment of civil servants in western countries focuses on the principle of selecting the best. This is an important principle of appointment criteria and basis. It is required to decide promotion according to work performance, and there are objective evaluation criteria. Because the level of talent and character should be reflected in work performance. The function of performance system is to encourage civil servants to work hard and improve government efficiency. At the same time, it can strengthen the competition mechanism and urge civil servants to keep improving. In short, the principle of performance system can fully mobilize the enthusiasm and creativity of civil servants. This is the performance appraisal system in the United States. However, this kind of assessment often pays attention to people's practical ability and ignores people's potential and development trend, which is also a drawback. The principles adhered to in the annual assessment of civil servants in China are: first, the principle of objectivity and fairness, that is, comprehensively and accurately reflecting the situation of civil servants and making a fair evaluation of civil servants according to unified standards; Second, the principle of democracy and openness is to make the contents, standards, methods and procedures of assessment public, openly accept the supervision of the masses, and let the masses directly participate in the assessment through soliciting opinions and democratic appraisal; The third is the principle of assessment according to law. The content of the assessment is to conduct a comprehensive assessment from the four aspects of civil servants' morality, ability, diligence and performance, focusing on the assessment of work performance, emphasizing the standard of having both ability and political integrity, and paying attention to the assessment of political and ideological performance.
Like the western civil servant assessment, the annual assessment results of civil servants in China are also the basis for promotion, but there are some differences in the assessment: the assessment of civil servants in western countries mainly focuses on attendance and performance appraisal, and generally does not ask about political behavior; And our country requires both ability and political integrity. The assessment methods are different. Western countries mainly focus on leadership assessment, and the assessment results are not published. However, our country adopts the assessment method of combining leaders with the masses, and inform me of the assessment results. The evaluation agencies are different. In western countries, the personnel department is the main evaluation of each department, while in China, each department conducts its own evaluation. The assessment time is different every year. It is twice a year in western countries and once in China. The assessment degree is different, and the domestic assessment is relatively complicated.
3. From the relationship between civil servants and government, there are significant differences between China and western countries.
The relationship between civil servants and the government in western countries is an employment relationship, and the civil service system is regarded as an independent interest group, which separates the identity of civil servants (officials to the public, employees to the government). China's civil servants are public servants of the people, masters of the country, and staff members who exercise state administrative rights on behalf of the people. Their relationship with the government is a joint relationship of performing administrative duties together.
4. China is different from western countries in the training of civil servants.
Western countries attach great importance to the renewal of civil servants' knowledge and the improvement of their ability, so they train civil servants in various forms to ensure that their quality can meet the needs of social development and improve the existing administrative level. For example, the British Civil Service College was established in 1970 to strengthen the training of civil servants. Moreover, western countries also pay attention to the cultivation of civil servants' personality, so that they have good quality, so as to fulfill their duties conscientiously in their work. In addition, training is also needed for newly hired civil servants or civil servants who have been promoted to positions. Western countries pay more attention to the principle of professionalization of civil servants, and pay attention to knowledge and professionalism, so they should also train civil servants in social sciences to broaden their horizons. In addition, it also carries out personal knowledge and professional technology training, as well as research and training on practical and theoretical issues that government agencies urgently need to solve. The training of civil servants in western countries emphasizes the principles of pertinence and flexibility, and some effective training methods have been formed. For example, the French National School of Administration is a "super-top" school that specializes in training non-technical senior civil servants. The college has its own organizational form, strict enrollment system and unique teaching methods to meet the needs of training objectives.
In China, the Provisional Regulations on National Civil Servants stipulates that training institutions such as National School of Administration and Local School of Administration shall undertake the training tasks of national civil servants in accordance with relevant regulations. The National School of Administration is responsible for training senior civil servants and some middle-level civil servants; Local administrative colleges are responsible for training local intermediate and junior civil servants; Other training institutions mainly include management colleges affiliated to ministries and commissions and directly affiliated institutions in the State Council, as well as adult education institutions in universities. They undertake systematic or professional civil service training respectively. Its training content is mainly to adhere to the combination of political education and professional training. Its types include training for newly hired civil servants, training for civil servants promoted to leadership positions, specialized business training, knowledge updating training, etc. Comparatively speaking, China's civil servant training lags far behind western countries in standardization and institutionalization.
(VI) Improvement and development of the civil service system in China.
The construction of China's civil service system began in the mid-1980s and has a history of 15 years. After just 15 years of exploration and practice, China's civil service system construction has made remarkable achievements, initially realized the transformation from the traditional personnel system to the modern civil service system, established the basic framework of the national civil service system, and formed a legal system of civil service management led by the Provisional Regulations on National Civil Servants, supplemented by nearly 40 separate regulations and implementation rules; The State Council and local government agencies at or above the county level have completed job classification and personnel transition. At the same time, the basic operating mechanisms of national civil servants have been gradually established. For example, an open, equal, competitive and merit-based competition mechanism has initially taken shape, and the civil service recruitment examination has been widely implemented in various places, and those who pass the public examination are selected for employment; The incentive mechanism of strict assessment and merit-based promotion began to play a role, and government agencies at all levels fully implemented annual assessment, and the assessment methods were gradually improved; The mechanism of diligent and honest government has also been established, and various places generally adopt such practices as rotation exchange, avoidance and openness of government affairs. Through the full implementation of the national civil service system, the structure of China's civil servants has been optimized and the quality of personnel has been significantly improved.
However, due to the short time of implementing the civil service system in China and the transition period of the system, the construction of the civil service team in China is not satisfactory at present, and there are many problems and defects. The civil service system has encountered some problems in practice [1], which are highlighted as follows:
First, the system construction is not perfect. Mainly manifested in three aspects: First, the legislative level is low and the authority is not strong. The legislative level of the Provisional Regulations on State Civil Servants is low, which restricts the perfection and development of the civil servant system. Second, some systems need to be improved. Such as the classification of civil service posts. At present, there is only the distinction between leadership positions and non-leadership positions in management, and the characteristics of classification are not fully reflected; Third, individual supporting systems have not yet been matched.
Second, the implementation of the system is still not in place. For example, the examination employment system. As a successful personnel system reform, it has been widely recognized and supported by the society, but so far, "one test to the end" has not been fully implemented. According to statistics, 38% of the newly recruited personnel of the party and government organs in China failed the examination, which is more prominent in counties and townships.
Third, institutional innovation is not standardized. In recent years, various localities and departments have made innovations and made breakthroughs in many aspects of civil servant management, but there are also some problems. Such as competition for posts, how to deal with the relationship between examination, assessment and democratic evaluation, and so on. , need to further study the specification.
Compared with the reform of civil service system in western countries, the reform and development of civil service system in China has its particularity: the development time of civil service system in China is short, while that in western countries has a history of nearly 150 years; At present, the framework of China's civil service system has just begun to take shape, with imperfect system and irregular operation. However, the civil service system in western countries, especially in Britain and the United States, has gone through a long process of evolution, becoming quite mature and rigid, and its hierarchy, specialization and strict control have not adapted to the needs of the post-industrial era. The implementation of China's civil service system is carried out under the background of underdeveloped economy, the market mechanism has just begun to develop and the transition to modernity, while the western civil service system is carried out under the background of post-industrial society with developed economy and perfect market mechanism. In addition, the political system environment and ideological atmosphere of China's civil service system construction are also different from the western civil service system reform.
The differences in national conditions and environment determine the differences in objectives, strategies, steps, methods and specific measures between the development of China's civil service system and the reform of the western civil service system. Therefore, while strengthening the construction of the civil service system, we should pay attention to flexibility and seek a balance between them. Specific measures are as follows:
1, speed up legislation, strengthen law enforcement, and improve the level of rule of law in civil service management. First, step up the formulation of the civil service law. According to the requirements of the CPC Central Committee, the State Council and the National People's Congress, on the basis of earnestly summing up the civil service system, we should promptly draft the national civil service law. Second, study and formulate individual laws and regulations that are still lacking. Such as civil service discipline, code of conduct, transfer, competition for posts, etc. ; The existing individual laws and regulations should be revised, supplemented and improved on the basis of practical inspection. Third, do a good job in system implementation. Fourth, explore the law enforcement mechanism of civil servant management. It is necessary to improve the mechanism, innovate methods and improve the scientific level of civil servant management. Adhere to the "entrance examination" and improve the examination and employment system. Promote and standardize the post competition to ensure the post competition effect. Continue to explore the idea of classified management, and study and draft the Measures for the Administration of Professional and Technical Civil Servants. Improve the assessment system and actively strengthen and improve the annual assessment of party and government organs. We will do a good job in supporting reforms, promptly formulate supporting measures such as demotion, resignation and dismissal, and promote the establishment of social security systems such as social pension and medical care for civil servants.
2. Focus on strengthening the competitive incentive mechanism and promoting the improvement of the civil service system. First, improve the examination and employment system and strengthen the evaluation of candidates' administrative ability and potential. Improve the civil service recruitment examination system, explore the establishment of a graded and classified examination system, and innovate the examination organization. The second is to standardize the procedures and assessment contents of competitive posts, explore and improve the scientific methods of competitive posts, and lay a "fast track" for the growth of outstanding civil servants. Third, improve the assessment system and encourage civil servants to make progress. Fourth, optimize the atmosphere of competitive incentive mechanism. We will promptly formulate supporting measures such as demotion, resignation and dismissal, and promote the construction of social security systems such as social pension, medical care and unemployment for civil servants. Strengthen public opinion propaganda, promote the change of ideas, and create a good environment conducive to competitive incentive mechanism. [ 1]
3. Deepen the training system with capacity building as the core. To strengthen the capacity building of civil servants, it is necessary to expand the scale of training and ensure that all civil servants will be trained in rotation within five years. Innovate methods, improve training quality, explore boldly, and actively adopt advanced training methods such as double-lecture teaching, scenario simulation and case teaching. At the same time, integrate training resources and strengthen infrastructure construction. Adhere to the combination of training and use, improve the incentive and restraint mechanism, enhance the rigidity of the training and restraint mechanism, and achieve "no training, no post, no training, no promotion".
4. Be brave in innovating the management system according to the ever-changing situation. While consolidating, perfecting and implementing the current system, we should focus on the overall situation and long-term, study new problems in light of the new situation, and be brave in innovation to make the civil service system full of vitality and exuberance. We should grasp the key points and highlight the key links: first, we should start with perfecting the system, refine and supplement the content of the civil service system according to the new situation and explore the key links of civil service management; The second is; Focusing on the goal of team building, we make bold attempts and explore experience in the aspects of civil servants' ability to go up and down, enter and leave, and improve their quality. Third, focus on solving the hot and difficult issues that the people and civil servants care about; Fourth, summarize new practices and experiences in time and vigorously promote more mature systems; For those who are directional and do not have the conditions for universal promotion, we should gradually expand the pilot and constantly enrich and improve it in the pilot.
If in doubt, please consult the public education enterprises in China.