Albert Einstein (1879-1955), a world-famous German-American scientist, the founder and founder of modern physics.
Einstein graduated from the Technical University of Zurich in 1900 and began teaching at the university in 1909. In 1914, he was appointed director of the Wilhelm Royal Institute of Physics and professor at the University of Berlin. He was later forced to immigrate to the United States and became an American citizen in 1940.
The late nineteenth century was a period of change in physics. Starting from experimental facts, Einstein re-examined the basic concepts of physics and made fundamental breakthroughs in theory. Some of his achievements greatly promoted the development of astronomy. His quantum theory has a great influence on astrophysics, especially theoretical astrophysics. The first mature aspect of theoretical astrophysics, the theory of stellar atmospheres, was built on the basis of quantum theory and radiation theory. Einstein's special theory of relativity successfully revealed the relationship between energy and mass, solving the long-standing problem of stellar energy sources. In recent years, more and more high-energy physical phenomena have been discovered, and special relativity has become one of the most basic theoretical tools to explain such phenomena. His general theory of relativity also solved a long-standing mystery in astronomy and deduced the phenomenon of light bending that was later verified. It also became the theoretical basis for many later astronomical concepts.
Einstein’s greatest contribution to astronomy is his cosmological theory. He founded relativistic cosmology, established a static finite and boundless self-consistent dynamic universe model, and introduced new concepts such as cosmological principles and curved space, which greatly promoted the development of modern astronomy.
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Reference: Love Einstein's introduction to Mr. Weber's insight: At the age of sixteen, Einstein was admitted to the Engineering Department of the Federal University of Technology in Zurich, Switzerland, but failed the entrance examination. Mr. Weber, a physicist at the school who had read his mathematics and physics examination papers, recognized talents and praised him: "You are a very smart boy.
Newton, the great British physicist, died on December 16, 1642 Born in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, on May 25, into a farming family. At the age of 12, he showed interest in experiments and mechanical inventions when he was studying at Grantham Public School, and made his own water clock and wind mill. and sundial, etc. In 1661, Newton studied at Trinity College of Cambridge and became an outstanding student. In 1669, at the age of 27, he became a professor of mathematics in Cambridge. In 1672, he was elected as a member of the Royal Society. /p>
From 1685 to 1687, with the encouragement and sponsorship of astronomer Halley, Newton published the famous "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" and completed historic discoveries - the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation, which He made a significant contribution to the development of modern natural science. In 1703, he was elected president of the Royal Society. He died in a small village outside London on March 27, 1727.
Newton was not only important to mechanics. , also made great contributions in other aspects. In mathematics, he discovered the binomial theorem and founded calculus; in optics, he conducted the dispersion experiment of sunlight and proved that white light is composed of monochromatic light. , studied the theory of color, and invented the reflecting telescope.
Galileo (1564-1642) - Italian physicist, astronomer, and mathematician Galileo may be more qualified than any other person. The founder of modern science. His famous conflict with the Catholic Church was a central event in his philosophy. This is because Galileo was one of the first to argue that humans can understand how the world works, and that we can. Galileo did this by observing the real world. Galileo had long believed in the Copernican theory that the planets orbited the sun, but only publicly expressed his support for it when he found evidence to support it. wrote about Copernicus's theory (not in ordinary academic Latin), and his views soon gained widespread support outside the university circles, which angered Aristotelian professors. They united against him and tried their best to persuade the Catholic Church to ban Copernicanism. Galileo was worried about this and rushed to Rome to complain to the Catholic authorities.
He argued that the Bible does not attempt to tell us anything about scientific theories, but often assumes that, when the Bible conflicts with common sense, it becomes metaphorical. But the church feared that the scandal might harm its fight against Protestants, so it resorted to repressive measures. In 1616, it declared Copernicanism "hypocritical and false" and ordered Galileo not to "defend or uphold" the doctrine anymore. Galileo reluctantly accepted.
In 1623, a long-time friend of Galileo became pope. Galileo immediately tried to overturn the 1616 verdict. He failed, but he managed to obtain permission to write a book describing the Aristotelian and Copernican theories on two premises: he must not be inclined and at the same time draw the conclusion that human beings in any situation No one can determine how the world works, because God will achieve the same effect in ways that humans cannot imagine, and humans cannot limit God’s omnipotence. The book, entitled Dialogue Concerning the Two Principal World Systems, was completed and published in 1632 with the censor's full support, and was immediately hailed throughout Europe as a literary and philosophical masterpiece. The Pope soon realized that the book was seen as a confirmation of Copernicanism and regretted allowing its publication. The Pope pointed out that although the censors had officially approved the publication of the book, Galileo still violated the 1616 ban. He brought Galileo before the Inquisition, sentenced him to lifelong house arrest, and ordered him to publicly renounce Copernicanism. Galileo was forced to obey for the second time.
Galileo was always a faithful Catholic, but his faith in the independence of science never wavered. In 1642, four years before his death, while he was still under house arrest, the manuscript of his second major work was given privately to a Dutch publisher. It was this book, known as The Two New Sciences, that went even further than supporting Copernicus and became the origin of modern physics.
The great astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (Polish name Mikolaj Kopernik) was born into a wealthy family in the city of Tolan on the Vistula River in Poland. He studied at the University of Cracau when he was young, and became interested in astronomy during his studies. In his twenties, he went to Italy to study law and medicine at the University of Bologna and Padil University, and later received a doctorate in religious law from the University of Ferrara. As a doctor, Copernicus was known as the "Miracle Doctor" because of his superb medical skills. Copernicus spent most of his adult life as a priest at the Cathedral of Fraungeng. Copernicus was not a professional astronomer. He completed his famous work in his spare time.
The accuracy of the numerical values ??obtained by his observations and calculations in "On the Movement of Celestial Bodies" is astonishing. For example, he obtained that the sidereal year is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes and 40 seconds, which is about 30 seconds longer than the current accurate value, and the error is only one millionth; he obtained that the average distance between the moon and the earth is 60.30 of the earth's radius. times, compared with the current 60.27 times, the error is only five ten thousandths.
While in Italy, Copernicus became familiar with the teachings of the Greek philosopher Aristarchus (3rd century BC) and was convinced that the heliocentric theory that the earth and other planets revolve around the sun is correct. When he was about 40 years old, he began to circulate a short manuscript among his friends, preliminary expounding his own views on heliocentric theory. After years of observation and calculation, Copernicus finally completed his great work "On the Revolution of the Celestial Bodies".
In 1533, the 60-year-old Copernicus gave a series of lectures in Rome, putting forward the main points of his doctrine without any objection from the Pope. But he was afraid that the church would object, and even after he finished the book, he still hesitated to publish it. It was not until he was approaching his seventies that he finally decided to publish it. On the day of his death, May 24, 1543, he received a book he had written from the publisher.
In the book he correctly discusses the fact that the earth revolves on its axis; that the moon revolves around the earth; and that the earth and all other planets revolve around the sun. But like his predecessors, he also seriously underestimated the size of the solar system. He believed that the orbits of stars were a series of concentric circles, which was of course wrong. The mathematics in his doctrine were complex and inaccurate.
But his book immediately attracted great attention, driving a number of other astronomers to make more accurate observations of planetary motion, the most famous of which was the great Danish astronomer Thaus Blejo, on whom Kepler based his work Based on the observation data, the correct laws of star movement were finally deduced.
This is an unprecedented theory that ushered in a new era. It is undoubtedly a blow to the Ptolemaic geocentric theory that has been regarded as a final conclusion by academic circles for thousands of years.
Although Aristarchus proposed the heliocentric theory more than 1,700 years before Copernicus, in fact Copernicus received this reputation. Aristarchus simply made a conjecture based on inspiration without discussing it in detail, so his theory was scientifically useless. After Copernicus solved the mathematical problems in the conjecture one by one, he turned it into a useful scientific theory - a theory that can be used to make predictions. Comparing the doctrines, you will find its great significance.
Obviously Copernicus's theory is a revolution in human understanding of the universe. It has brought about major changes in people's entire worldview. But in valuing Copernicus' influence, we should also note that astronomy was not as widely used as physics, chemistry, and biology. In theory, people could build things like televisions, cars, and modern chemical plants even if they had no knowledge or application of Copernican theory. But it is unthinkable not to apply the teachings of Faraday, Maxwell, Lavoisier and Newton.
To merely consider the impact of Copernicanism on technology is to completely miss its true significance. Copernicus's book was an indispensable prelude to the work of Galileo and Kepler. They became Newton's main predecessors. It was the discovery of these two that enabled Newton to determine the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation.
Copernicus’s scientific achievements were a product of the era in which he lived, which in turn promoted the development of the era.
The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Europe were the critical period of transition from feudal society to capitalist society. During these two hundred years, society underwent tremendous changes. Before the 14th century, Europe was full of small and fragmented city-states. Later, with the rise of urban industry and commerce, especially the development of mining and metallurgy, many new large cities emerged, and small city-states tended to unite to form countries. By the end of the 15th century, essentially centralized monarchies had emerged in many countries. At that time, Poland not only had big cities like Krakow and Poznan, but also many cities with flourishing handicraft industries. Warsaw, which was annexed to Poland in 1526, has become an important commercial, political, cultural and geographical center, and became the capital of Poland at the end of the 16th century.
In line with this political and economic change, culture and science have also begun to reflect it. At that time, Europe was a "theocracy". The Holy See controlled many countries. The Bible was declared to be the supreme truth. Any doctrine that violated the Bible was denounced as "heresy". Anyone who opposed theocratic rule was punished. Burning. For its own survival and development, the emerging bourgeoisie launched a struggle against the feudal system and the superstitious ideas of the church, and the humanistic trend of thought emerged. The weapons they used to fight were ancient Greek philosophy, science, and literature that were not contaminated by theology. This was the Renaissance movement that shook Europe. The Renaissance first occurred in Italy and soon spread to Poland and other European countries.
At the same time, the active business also promoted the development of foreign trade. Driven by the talisman of "gold", many European adventurers sailed to Africa, India and the entire Far East. Ocean navigation requires a wealth of astronomical and geographical knowledge. The accumulated observation data made people feel that the popular cosmology theory of "the earth is still and the sky is moving" is questionable. This requires people to further explore the secrets of the universe, thereby advancing the development of astronomy and geography. In 1492, Columbus, the famous Italian navigator, made the first discovery of the celestial body. From 1519 to 1522, Magellan and his companions orbited the earth, proving that the earth is round, and people began to truly understand the earth.
During the Middle Ages, under the strict control of the church, vigorous religious revolutions also occurred. Because many Catholic doctrines are not in line with the teachings of the Bible and incorporate too much of the pope's personal will and the achievements of various theologians, many believers have begun to question Catholic doctrines and organizations and initiate actions to return to the Bible.
Jan Hus (1369-1415), a Czech patriot and president of the University of Prague, publicly condemned the oppression and exploitation of the Czech Republic by the German feudal lords and the Catholic Church at a religious conference in Constantinople. Although he was burned at the stake by the reactionary church, his revolutionary activities aroused strong reactions in society. Czech peasants revolted under the banner of the Hussites, and the movement also spread to Poland. In 1517, in Germany, Martin Luther (1483-1546) opposed the sale of indulgences by the church and openly broke with the Pope. In 1521, Luther exposed the sins of the Holy See at the Congress of Worm and proposed the establishment of a new Christian religion. The teachings of Protestantism were supported by many countries, and Poland was also deeply affected.
In such an era of great change and turmoil, Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473, in the city of Torun on the Vistula River. His father is a wealthy businessman who is a member of Parliament. He has an older brother and two older sisters. When Copernicus was 10 years old, his father died and he was sent to the home of his uncle, Archbishop Ukash, to be raised. Wukasch was a humanist who had close contacts with the progressive intellectual circles of Poland at that time, and was a close friend of the outstanding Italian revolutionary and humanist Philippe Buonaksi. When Copernicus was in high school, Mukasch took him to attend humanist gatherings. In 1491, according to his uncle's arrangement, Copernicus went to the University of Krakow to study astronomy and mathematics.
At that time, Poland had already produced some famous astronomers, such as Marcin Kroll, who wrote the book "Revision of the Alpens Astrology Table" in 1450 and lectured in many countries. Another example is the famous astronomer Wojciech, who once compiled an astronomical ephemeris. He lectured at the University of Krakow and was a professor of mathematics and astronomy when Copernicus was a student. Copernicus's "heliocentric theory" was conceived while studying at the University of Krakow.
Although the Bible does not involve various astronomical knowledge such as "the earth is the center of the universe" and "the sky is round and the earth is round". But in the Middle Ages, astronomy also had official arguments that extended to ancient Greece and were framed by scholastic theologians. In order to consolidate feudal rule, the Catholic Church's Inquisition burned many precious scientific works, sometimes burning 20 carts a day. In 1327, the Italian astronomer Cecco Dascoli was burned alive. His "crime" was to violate the teachings of the Bible and argue that the earth is spherical and that humans exist in another hemisphere.
Great Doctrine
In that era when "science became the handmaiden of theology", many doctrines were distorted and castrated and used to serve feudal rule. In medieval Europe, few people knew the true contents of ancient scientific texts. At this time, an important task for scientific workers is to discover ancient cultural heritage.
In the second century AD, Ptolemy, the great astronomer of ancient Greece, summarized the observations of his predecessors over the past 400 years and wrote the book "Collection of Astronomy" (i.e. "The Great Treatise"). Proposed the theory that "the earth is the center of the universe". This theory has been accepted by people and has been circulated for more than 1,400 years.
Ptolemy believed that the earth sat motionless at the center of the universe, and that all celestial bodies, including the sun, revolved around the earth. However, during observations, people discovered that the movement of celestial bodies has a phenomenon of suddenly moving forward and sometimes backward, sometimes faster and sometimes slower. In order to explain the phenomenon of forward and backward, Ptolemy said that it is not the celestial body itself that moves in equilibrium around the earth, but the center of the wheel in which the celestial body moves. He called the circular wheel surrounding the earth "deferent wheel" and the smaller circular wheel "epicycle". In order to explain the phenomenon of fast and slow times, he added some auxiliary "epicycles" in addition to the main "epicycle", and also used the term "virtual wheel", so that the center of the "epicycle" can be Unbalanced motion seems to be "balanced" from the center of the "virtual wheel". In this way, Ptolemy made far-fetched interpretations of ancient observations.
However, in the following centuries, a large amount of observational data was accumulated. Ptolemy's "epicycle" alone was not enough to explain the movement of celestial bodies. This required the addition of an increasing number of "Epicycle". Later generations of scholars devoted themselves to this "tinkering" work, making Ptolemaic's system more and more complex, and the study of astronomy has remained at this level.
The statement that "the earth is the center of the universe" is exactly the basis of "the theologian's sky".
Medieval theologians touted Ptolemy's conclusions, but concealed Ptolemy's methodology: Ptolemy established a genius mathematical theory in an attempt to use human wisdom to discover the movement of celestial bodies using methods of observation, calculation and reasoning. Reasons and laws are the vital part of Ptolemaic theory. Therefore, although Ptolemy's "Earth-centered Theory" coincides with the theologians' cosmology, there is an essential difference between the two. One is a scientifically wrong conclusion, and the other is an attempt to fool mankind and make feudal rule eternal. It became a big lie. Copernicus made a correct evaluation of this. He said: "You should shoot your arrows in the same direction as Ptolemy, but the materials of the bow and arrows must be completely different from his."
Brother. Beni had studied Ptolemy's works very diligently. He saw the contradiction between Ptolemy's erroneous conclusions and the scientific method. Copernicus discovered the truth by discovering the source of Ptolemy's error.
Copernicus realized that the development path of astronomy should not continue to "repair" the old theory of Ptolemy, but to discover a new theory of the structure of the universe. He made an analogy: Those scholars who stand in Ptolemy's position make individual, isolated observations and piece together some overlapping "epicycles" to explain the phenomena of the universe, just like someone picking up things from here and there. The limbs and head, when drawn, do not look like humans, but look like monsters.
Copernicus began to think about the Earth's rotation as early as when he was studying at the University of Krakow. He said in the preface to "The Movement of Celestial Bodies" that his predecessors had the right to invent a circular wheel to explain the phenomena of the starry sky, and he also had the right to try to find a more appropriate method than a circular wheel to explain the movement of celestial bodies.
Copernicus’ purpose of observing celestial bodies was opposite to that of previous scholars. He is not forcing cosmic phenomena to obey the "Earth-centered" doctrine. Copernicus had a famous saying: "Phenomena guide astronomers." He wanted the phenomena of the universe to answer the questions he asked, and he wanted the observed phenomena to confirm a newly created theory - the "solar center" theory. His targeted observations finally led to a complete revolution in astronomy.
Copernicus's observational work had a good start at the University of Krakow. He once observed lunar eclipses and studied the vast starry sky using the "star catcher" and "triarcometer" presented to the school by the famous astrologer Marcin Blitza (about 1433-1493).
Copernicus stopped studying at the University of Krakow for three years and went to Italy to study "canon law." This was his uncle Mukashi's idea. Because the Knights of the Cross who were entrenched in the north of Poland at that time often violated the border and committed crimes, and to fight them, someone must be proficient in "Church Law". Copernicus believed that it was his duty to fight against the Knights of the Cross. He said: "No obligation is as solemn as the obligation to the motherland, and it is not necessary to sacrifice one's life for the motherland." So he agreed with Wukashi's suggestion. In order to obtain travel expenses abroad and living expenses for long-term study abroad, he once again accepted his uncle's arrangement and decided to hold a church position for the rest of his life. In the autumn of 1496, Copernicus put on his monk's robe and set out for Italy.
He studied "canon law" at the University of Bologna in northern Italy, while studying astronomy hard. Here, he met Dominic Maria, a well-known astronomer at the time, and worked with him on lunar theory. He began to use actual observations to expose the contradictions between Ptolemaic theory and objective phenomena. He found that Ptolemy's explanation of the movement of the moon, as Regimentum pointed out, must lead to an absurd conclusion: the volume of the moon sometimes expands and sometimes contracts, the full moon is the result of expansion, and the new moon is the result of contraction. result. On March 9, 1497, Copernicus and Maria conducted a famous observation together. That night, the night was clear, the stars were twinkling, and a crescent moon floated in space. They stood on the tower of St. Joseph's Church and observed the bright star "Aldebaran" in the constellation Taurus to see how it was obscured by the approaching crescent moon. When "Aldebaran" and the moon came together and there were still some gaps, "Aldebaran" quickly disappeared. They accurately measured the time when "Aldebaran" disappeared, and calculated conclusive data, proving that those gaps were all parts of the moon's eclipse, and "Aldebaran" was obscured by the shadow of the moon itself. The moon has not shrunk in size. In this way, Copernicus opened a gap in Ptolemy's geocentric theory.
In 1500, due to financial difficulties, Copernicus went to Rome to work as a mathematics teacher.
In the summer of the next year, Copernicus returned to China. Later, with funding from the church, he went to Padua, Italy, to study medicine in the autumn. In 1503, Copernicus obtained a doctorate in canon law from the University of Fararo.
At this time, Copernicus was also working hard to study ancient classics in order to seek reference materials for the "solar center theory". He read almost all the literature he could get his hands on. He later wrote: "The more I sought help in my own work, the more time I devoted to those who founded the subject. I was willing to integrate my discoveries with their discoveries." He While studying ancient classics, I once copied down some bold insights:
“The sky, the sun, the moon, the stars and everything in the sky are standing still. Except for the earth, there is nothing in the universe. Things are moving. The Earth is spinning on its axis at huge speeds, which creates the feeling that the Earth is standing still while the sky is spinning."
"Most scholars believe that the Earth is standing still. , but Philopus and Pythagoras told it to revolve around a fire."
"In the center of the planet stands the huge and majestic sun, which is not only the master of time, but also the sun. But the Lord of the Earth is also the Lord of the stars and the sky."
The outstanding insights of these ancient scholars were considered "deviant" at the time, but to Copernicus, they were like night. The lighthouse on the voyage illuminated his direction.
In 1506, Copernicus ended his ten years of studying in Italy and returned to his country.
The birth of "Operation"
Copernicus left Italy on a rainy autumn day. At that time, there was a vision of comets breaking the sky, and plague was prevalent in vast areas. At this moment, Pope Alexander accidentally drank the poisoned wine that was used to murder others and died. The Italian Church took the opportunity to issue various "warnings" to deceive and fool the people. When Copernicus returned to Poland, another rare star phenomenon appeared in the sky, and the church was also active, causing the capital Krakow to be in chaos.
It turns out that the church announced that there would be four consecutive visions of Saturn and Jupiter "converging" in the sky, saying that this was a serious warning from God to the world. A false prophet will appear in the world, and floods and plagues will follow one after another, causing social unrest and national collapse. These kinds of rumors have made people uneasy. Rich people are desperately seeking pleasure in the hope of getting rid of the fear of the future; poor people have even gone bankrupt and have difficulty surviving in order to buy "atonement charms" from the church. The sky has always been a cash cow for the church's extortion. They put "a place in heaven" in their wallets, sell "atonement" in large quantities, and collect people's wealth. At that time, the famous religious inquisitor Tiezhel in Poland said that those who paid him filial piety and money could avoid disasters, and even the dead could atone for their sins. His catchphrase was: "Put money into the Holy Ark, and the soul ascends to heaven!"
At this time, Copernicus and his friends were also studying the problem of the "conjunction" of the two stars in Krakow. Copernicus discovered that the church's statement contained errors in data and was clearly deceptive. So, he and his friends decided to conduct observations in different areas in order to work together to expose the church's evil tactics.
When the fourth "rendezvous" occurred, Copernicus was at the residence of his uncle Ukarsch in Helsberg, presiding over the fight against the Knights of the Cross. Although he was busy with government affairs, Copernicus Still insist on observing the stars.
The results of the observations confirmed Copernicus’ prediction. The date of the "reunion" is not consistent with what the church said, but it is consistent with Copernicus's calculations - it is more than a month in advance. Copernicus' friends also observed the same star.
In Helsberg, due to constant urging from friends, Copernicus wrote an outline of his "heliocentric theory" and gave it a simple name, "On the Movement of the Celestial Bodies" "Hypothesis", copied to several of his close friends. It announced: "All celestial bodies revolve around the sun, and the center of the universe is near the sun. The earth also revolves in a circle like other planets. It rotates around the earth's axis once every day and night, and orbits around the sun once a year..."
What Copernicus announced was the outline of a vast system of doctrine, which caused much debate among the friends at the party. Copernicus answered many questions. At the end of the debate, he quoted the words of Cicero, the great ancient Roman poet: “There is nothing as complete as the universe, nothing as pure as virtue.
"He used this sentence to express a belief, that is: the universe is complete, symmetrical, harmonious, and has understandable laws and order.
"On the hypothesis of the movement of celestial bodies 》 is the first cornerstone of Copernican theory, but to build a magnificent theoretical building on this cornerstone, a lot of preparation work still needs to be done.
In 1512, Vukas died of illness. Copernicus left Helsberg and moved to Fromburg, where the parish cathedral is located. Fromburg is a small fishing port on the Baltic Sea. After Copernicus settled in Fromburg, he bought an arrow tower in the castle. This archery tower was originally used for combat. The triangular roof tilts forward and almost extends to the outside of the wall. There are three windows on the top floor, where are Copernicus's studios, each with its own bedroom. A shooting hole. From the top window, you can observe the sky in all directions. When the roof hinders the observation, he lived here until his death. p>At this time, Copernicus had named his future work "Operation". In his view, movement is the true meaning of life - movement exists in everything, up to the sky and down to the deep sea. What is static? Everything is growing, changing, and disappearing, and it continues through the ages. This work is to reveal the most essential secret of nature. This view of Copernicus is affirmed. It revealed the existence of the objective world and its regularity, shining with the brilliance of simple materialist philosophy.
Copernicus made many indirect observations of the shape of the earth as early as 150011. On September 6, he observed the lunar eclipse on a high hill near Rome and studied the arc-shaped shadow cast by the earth on the moon's surface, thus confirming Aristotle's conclusion that the earth is spherical. He once stood on the Baltic coast and observed sailing ships. Once, Copernicus asked a sailing ship to tie a shining object to its mast. He stood on the shore and watched the sailing ship slowly sailing. The first observation said: "As the sailboat went away, the shining object gradually descended and finally disappeared completely, as if the sun was setting. This observation led him to come to the conclusion: "Even the sea surface is round." ”
On the shores of the damp and foggy Baltic Sea, on cold winter nights, there are no cloud shadows in the sky, and the stars shine with dazzling cold light in the blue sky. Copernicus always takes advantage of this rare opportunity. Taking the opportunity, he put on his leather jacket, tightened his hood, moved the instruments to the terrace of the watchtower, and conducted all-night observations. The instruments he used were all made by himself, and there were three types of "three arcs" for measuring planetary distances. The "star catcher", which measures the position of the moon and planets, is made of six tree strips wound in a circle. The "quadrant" used to measure the height of the sun at midday is a large square wooden board with a graduated wooden ring in the upper right corner. There is a "level" on the shelf, which is actually just a glass tube filled with water for observing the solar eclipse. Originally, he wanted to observe the reflection in the water, but in order to reduce the trouble of lifting the water arrow tower, he broke with the convention and used a window guard with holes to reflect the sun's shadow on the wall. Copernicus used these simple devices to perform the task of observing the reflection in the water. More than 50 recorded observations were made before and after the fort, including solar eclipses, lunar eclipses, the positions of Mars, Venus, Jupiter and Saturn, etc. It was not easy to make such accurate observations before the invention of telescopes. No wonder many outstanding astronomers later admired him very much.
In the autumn of 1516, the Knights of the Cross in northern Poland repeatedly invaded the border. The church took advantage of Copernicus's reputation and talent. He served as the general manager of the Orstin church and went to deal with the powerful enemy who was approaching the border.
In those years of war, Copernicus began to write his immortal work-"Operation". A simple observation tower was set up on the guard tower of Ulsten Castle, and some necessary information was taken with him. At that time, the content of the entire work had been outlined, and the whole book was planned to be written in eight volumes (it was six volumes at the time of publication). ). The first volume has been written, but the progress is very slow. This is because Copernicus must go all out to deal with the enemy's provocation and harassment.
In the autumn of 1519, Copernicus. He resigned from the position of Church Property Administrator and returned to Fromonburg to devote all his energy to writing "Run". However, the storm of war soon swept here, and Fromonburg was surrounded by the enemy. They killed and looted, cut off food and grass, and tried to force the defenders to surrender.
At this time, all the church priests fled, and some even rebelled against the country and surrendered to the enemy. But Copernicus still stayed in the city, working with the residents to support the defenders in the battle. They also built canals and water conservancy projects. The locks and water mills designed and built by Copernicus were of great significance to support the war and prosper the economy at that time.
In the autumn of the next year, Copernicus once again served as the director of the church in Orstin. At this time, the Knights of the Cross had invaded many nearby castles and were approaching Orstin. Copernicus used all the money in his custody to support the war, and personally deployed defenses and went to the city to supervise the war. The Knights of the Cross attacked the city with incendiary bombs, and Copernicus ordered people to use soaked leather to cover the enemy's incendiary bombs. After five days and five