In English writing classes, we often find this phenomenon: students have a relatively sufficient grasp of the English language, but they still make mistakes in their articles. If we roughly divide these "errors" in English composition into linguistic and non-linguistic ones, then we will find that non-linguistic problems will greatly exceed linguistic factors. The reason is that there are big cultural differences between English and Chinese, which affects people's way of thinking. Different ways of thinking have caused great "thinking interference" to Chinese students' writing in English. The language of any nation contains rich and profound cultural connotations. To express correctly in English, in addition to language knowledge, we must make students fully aware of the importance of cultural factors and actively cultivate cross-cultural awareness during the English learning process. "Cross-cultural awareness refers to the sensitivity, scientific understanding, and conscious handling of differences and conflicts between different cultures in cross-cultural communication." In students' English writing, we generally Discover issues at several levels including vocabulary, syntax, paragraph structure, cohesion and cohesion, and chapter structure.
1. Vocabulary level
The difference between Chinese culture and English culture is first reflected in vocabulary. Due to differences in historical, cultural traditions, ideologies and other factors, the same vocabulary carries different connotations in English and Chinese. We can divide vocabulary into conceptual vocabulary and cultural vocabulary, or the connotation of vocabulary into two levels: semantic connotation and cultural connotation. No matter how they are divided, one thing we can be sure of is that in both languages, in addition to the initial meanings given by people, words are also deeply imprinted with culture during the development of the language. To conduct effective cross-cultural communication, or to express your views and opinions correctly in English, you must understand and master the special meanings given to words in English and Chinese due to cultural differences. The Chinese are good at imagination, while the British and Americans prefer abstract or logical thinking. Different ways of thinking affect the way we speak and write. Chinese people value image thinking, but logical thinking is underdeveloped. Reflected in literature and daily life, symbols, images, and analogies are very rich. For example, all things in the world: mountains, water, flowers, grass, birds, and beasts are all objects of love for Chinese literati. They not only have a general meaning, but are also endowed with emotional color and personified, giving them the character's character and characteristics; they are also popularized, so they have a deeper cultural connotation. For example, when people mention "pine", "bamboo", "plum", "orchid", and "lotus", they are not only talking about plants, but also think of the noble qualities they "have". However, when these words that express ambition and express emotions through scenery are directly translated into English, they will lose their associative meaning, or cultural significance, and there will be no "ambition" and "emotion". Became a plant in a pure sense. Therefore, when using the corresponding English words in the dictionary to express ideas thought up in Chinese, one consequence must be considered: the amount of information may be compromised.
Secondly, Chinese people like to use metaphors or gorgeous rhetoric to make articles appear vivid and vivid with high literary talent. The vocabulary of images plays a very important role in this. For example, the description of a woman's beauty: "A look that sinks like a fish and a wild goose, an appearance that dazzles the flowers when the moon is closed", or it may make "hoeers" and "carriers" forget about the work in their hands. But how beautiful exactly is it? The answer lies in the reader's imagination. The image vocabulary here grasps the object as a whole and uses experience as a reference, giving readers ample room for imagination and allowing them to experience artistic conceptions that cannot be revealed by logical thinking. However, for British and Americans, gorgeous rhetoric may not necessarily achieve the same effect due to differences in emotional foundations and reading habits. Sometimes it may only reduce the clarity and effectiveness of information dissemination, and may even be considered empty talk, exaggeration or propaganda. There is such an advertisement in an investment zone: "The beauty of... will make you forget back." There is a corresponding English sentence below: The beauty of... will make you forget back.
This sentence in English has made many English People in the country felt a little baffled. Sometimes our evening show host will express his emotions passionately. If the Chinese at this time is expressed in English, the taste will be greatly changed and the information will be distorted.
In addition, the ancient Chinese people attached great importance to images, which actually emphasized the role of representation in thinking. Chinese uses metaphors, analogies, metonymy and other rhetorical means to standardize the meaning of some words, but it has not developed concepts well. What is the "Tao" in Laozi's "Tao Te Ching"? There are 105 places in "The Analects" that talk about "benevolence", a major concept of Confucianism, but what exactly is "benevolence"? Confucius did not point it out clearly. All this forced later scholars to work hard to clarify its true meaning. However, the results are still divided and there is no consensus. In comparison, concepts in English have stricter logical definitions. Scholars always give accurate and strict definitions to new concepts. There are many words in Chinese, such as rare to be confused, lying on the firewood and tasting courage, paradise, winged bird, Qiubao, history, etc., which reflect the ethics and values ??of the Chinese people. Generally speaking, Chinese vocabulary contains more cultural factors than English vocabulary. Therefore, when using English to express the meaning of Chinese vocabulary, the article may no longer be lively and mysterious, but appear bland; the information in the article may increase or decrease, and may even cause misunderstandings. When expressing in English, you must pay special attention to the choice of vocabulary and be direct and accurate.
2. Syntactic level
Grammar is the result of long-term abstraction of human thinking. "Grammar rules reflect the logical laws of human thinking." Among the four major cultural systems, only Chinese grammar appeared later. The systematic study of Chinese grammar was inspired and developed by Chinese scholars after learning Spanish grammar. It was exactly a hundred years ago that Ma Jianzhong wrote "Ma Shi Wentong" (1898). Mr. Li Jinxi's "Mandarin Grammar" was written in the 1920s. After that, the most influential ones were Mr. Wang Li's "Modern Chinese Grammar" and Lu Shuxiang's "Essentials of Chinese Grammar" in the 1940s. After liberation, the study of Chinese grammar has made great progress. However, it was only in the past few decades that we really stepped out of the rigid Western grammatical framework. Even so, it cannot be said that all the laws of Chinese grammar have been discovered. English grammar is based on a strict logical system. Therefore, the way people think in English-speaking countries reflects these logical principles.
The differences between English and Chinese languages ??are largely reflected in differences in syntax and rhetoric. The differences between Chinese and English grammar can be divided into two categories: one is the difference in word order. The meanings expressed in the two languages ??are the same, but the components of the sentences are arranged differently. For example, the relationship between nouns and modifiers. In Chinese, the noun being modified must come after the modifier. Simpler modifiers in English are generally placed before the noun, and more complex modifiers (including all attributive clauses) are after the noun and connected with relative pronouns. The position of the negative word also shows a difference: in Chinese, the negative word is placed before the verb, in English it is placed after the auxiliary verb, or occasionally after the verb, such as the use of the word think in the sentence. In addition, there are also big differences in prepositions, words indicating location structure and time.
However, under normal circumstances, students have a better grasp of this difference, and they can use it with ease. In students’ compositions, problems often arise in the second situation: differences in structure. The Chinese are good at image thinking, which is reflected in the Chinese language. The syntax is accustomed to meaning and the word order is arranged according to the logic of meaning. There is no deliberate pursuit of formal integrity and consistency, and there are no strict grammatical changes. Therefore, sometimes the subject can be omitted (it’s raining!), sometimes the predicate can be omitted (Hangzhou has beautiful mountains and clear waters), sometimes verbs can be used together, and the voice is mainly judged from the contextual meaning. Westerners, on the other hand, are good at formal logical thinking and pay attention to form and syntax. The relationship between the subject and predicate of the sentence, the tense and voice of the verb, the singular and plural forms of nouns, the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives, and the relationship between clauses are all important. It must be clear that the front and back should echo, be consistent, and match each other. This difference in grammatical phenomena is often reflected in students' compositions. Many students' sentences contain several predicate verbs at the same time; the frequent omission of subjects and predicates in Chinese often gives readers more aesthetic freedom. But in English, this phenomenon is not "freedom of aesthetics", but a mistake. In addition, there are some grammatical categories that are present in English but not in Chinese. For example, Chinese uses the lexical means "yesterday", "tomorrow", "just now" and "in a while" to explain that things happened in the past or in the future. However, English sentences must also be realized through the conjugation of the verb.
Furthermore, when the sentence is relatively long, in English, the topic is usually mentioned first, and the secondary meanings are elaborated one by one, that is, the focus is at the front; while in Chinese, the side points are discussed first, and the topic is mentioned last, with the emphasis at the end. Secondly, there are many special sentence structures and expressions in English, and the familiarity with them directly affects whether students can write authentic English and rich sentence patterns. The grammatical differences between the two languages ????are deeper than the former when the same meaning is expressed in different ways. Our students are proficient in grammar, but at the same time they have obvious deficiencies in reading, which makes them dependent on rigid syntactic structures and lack confidence in the diversity of sentence patterns. Most of the sentences written appear mechanical and dull, as if they were mass-produced.
3. Paragraph structure
For the author, facts, truths, views, opinions, etc. are already known in his mind. The key is which way to formulate the problem, that is, what rhetorical structure to determine. Way of thinking is one of the factors that affects people's rhetorical skills. The basic principles of Western rhetoric come from Aristotle's logic. He said, "Logic, as the basis of rhetoric, is a product of a culture and is not universal to mankind. Then rhetoric is not universal to mankind either. Rhetoric is diverse in different cultures, and even within a culture American linguistics scholar Robert Kaplan conducted a series of analyzes of passages written in English by international students using different native languages ??in the United States, pointing out the differences in rhetoric between different cultures. differences in their thinking. When he analyzed essays written in English by students from different cultural backgrounds, he found that there were obvious differences in the structure and layout of these essays. Although individual sentences extracted from these students' articles all appear to be "excellent sentences." However, these foreign students who have only mastered English syntax often write very bad paragraphs or articles because they have not fully mastered the thinking logic of British and American people. The thinking mode of British and Americans is characterized by deductive reasoning in a linear sequence. Therefore, the rhetorical mode of English articles generally develops the topic in a linear sequence and prepares for the progressive progression of meaning in subsequent paragraphs. Each paragraph addresses a relatively independent issue. Due to the progressive and clear-level characteristics of English articles, using topic and period questions at the beginning or end of each paragraph is a standardized way of communication that people often expect. Paragraphs may be developed in temporal and spatial order, or from minor to important or from important to minor, from general to specific or from specific to general. The sentences in the paragraph are also connected to each other through signal words, which is highly logical.
Native English speakers expect a linear thinking process, while the Chinese style is circular, usually centered around a center, with round-trip elaborations and explanations of the same theme. Chinese people focus on intuition, intuition, and imagery thinking. The rhetoric of articles is often based on metaphors, associations, analogies, symbols, and exaggerations, and the same theme is repeated and summarized many times to create an artistic conception and context that allows readers to associate the relationship between details and the theme. Chinese articles written by emotional Chinese people often have another feature, that is, they move people with emotion. One possible result is the lack of certain logic, or the neglect of logic. Therefore, due to the influence of thinking and rhetorical models, Chinese English learners often cannot arrange paragraph and chapter structures according to English rhetorical models when writing English articles. Therefore, students must be mentally prepared and mentally adjusted.
In the writing process, it often happens that students’ articles may not have much problem at the sentence level, but they give the impression that they are just a bunch of sentences. Here, students’ mastery of language knowledge can be said to be sufficient. So what's the problem? The focus is not outstanding and the stickiness is lacking! Therefore, while making appropriate arrangements for paragraphs, another issue must be considered: the adhesion and connection between sentences. Establishing connections between sentences and effectively organizing paragraphs can be done through the use of related words (references). It mainly includes lexical devices such as the repetition of pronouns, noun phrases or synonyms. These words themselves have no definite meaning. They can refer to a previous phrase, a sentence, or a point made up of several sentences, or they can also refer to the entire previous paragraph of text. But the special, concrete meaning given to it by the context makes the sentence coherent and smooth.
Another way is through the use of signal words or transitional words. These words can express the author's point of view more clearly, help the author push the issue deeper step by step, and make the sentences more coherent. Therefore, the sensitivity to these words directly affects whether one can express one's ideas more accurately and effectively, break out of the limitations of stacking single sentences, and make the article flow like clouds and flowing water without giving people too many bumps and bumps. Feel. Therefore, the sensitive and accurate use of signal words and associated words is essential in English composition.
4. Chapter structure
Thinking style affects the layout of people's speech and writing articles, affects people's persuasive methods, and the structural form of speech and writing articles. The concepts of "text grammar" proposed by van Dijk and "story grammar" later proposed by Rumelhart both indicate that writing articles and telling stories requires following certain "grammar" rules just like sentences. : Grammar or organization. There are big differences between this kind of rules in English and Chinese. Chinese people have a tendency to think holistically and are accustomed to writing with a beginning and an end, clearly explaining the ins and outs, never overturning the succession, and paying attention to the integrity of the structure. Kaplan believes that Chinese people’s way of writing and thinking is indirect. The author circles around the topic, illustrating the topic from a tangential point of view rather than getting straight to the topic. Some people compare the Chinese writing style of "winding paths leading to seclusion" to Suzhou's forest gardens. Some people also say that Chinese articles are to a large extent like Chinese classical ink freehand paintings, highlighting artistic conception. Native English speakers think linearly. This has been recognized by most scholars in logic, linguistics, cultural anthropology and other fields. Therefore, some people compare this style of writing to a Western geometric linear garden; others say that English articles are like Western paintings, emphasizing rigor, clear lines, and distinct layers.
In the reasoning process of Chinese compositions, we often use concrete things to express abstract and profound truths, making them appear vivid and intuitive, so that people can "understand" the meaning of the author's expression. The writing is lively and easy to understand. For example, "the method of expressing emotions", "the finishing touch method", "the method of metaphor first and then the method of correction", "the method of supporting things with metaphors", etc. are all typical ways of writing Chinese articles. However, this style of writing also shows a major flaw: a certain degree of ambiguity. Therefore, different people will have different understandings when reading it. This leads to frequent debates over words such as "Tao" and "Benevolence". English composition must follow one rule: calm logical thinking, that is, using simple language and calm logical arguments to clarify opinions and solve problems. This kind of article has a well-structured structure and clear logic. Another characteristic of Chinese articles is the use of citations from other sources, using sages, authoritative words or classic quotes as evidence. In English culture, people pay more attention to individuality and creativity. They often show an indifference to the words of sages, authorities or classic sayings, and instead use their own words and logic to clarify problems. Therefore, Guan Shijie made an analogy: "In the West, the author of argumentative essays seems to be a warrior pursuing the truth; in the East, the author of argumentative essays is a propagandist of truth."
In recent years A new set of theories about learning a second language has emerged in the United States: "transitional language". This concept means that in the process of learning a second language, there will be a mixture of native language and foreign language. This kind of mixing will gradually reduce the components of the native language and increase the components of the foreign language during the language learner's efforts, and then slowly transition to proficiency in the foreign language. The formation of this transitional language is obviously inseparable from the influence of the native language. Therefore, it is necessary for us to get students out of this "transitional language" period as soon as possible during the teaching process, recognize the differences between the two languages ??in terms of vocabulary, syntax, paragraphs, and chapter structure, and write authentic English compositions.
Differences in thinking styles are deep-seated differences in culture and are closely related to the way language is organized and expressed. There are big differences in the way of expression between Eastern and Western people due to different ways of thinking and habits. In the process of cross-language communication, the recipient of information must switch back and forth between two completely different modes of thinking brought about by different cultures. The unique way of thinking of Chinese people will inevitably affect English expression.
Therefore, in English writing teaching, it is very critical for students to grasp the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects; at the same time, students must make corresponding adjustments in their thinking and psychology when writing. In cross-cultural communication, making the message receiver satisfied with the received information not only involves the content and materials used by the message sender, but also involves using a way of thinking that is easy for the other party to accept, so as to truly achieve the purpose of communication. This is also an important task in our writing class.