(1) School of Political Arithmetic

Founders: William Pedi and John Grant

Advocate: use numbers, weights and measures to quantify methods to analyze and compare, express one's own thoughts and opinions, and lay the methodological foundation for the creation of statistics.

(2) School of State

Founder: Hymen Konling

Successors: Gottfried Akhenvall and Luther Vig Schl?tzer

Viewpoint: Gottfried Achenwald's representative work "Introduction to the Dynamics of Modern European Countries", this book analyzes the national trends of various countries through the study of "national salient matters" political and economic situation, and put forward some strategies for governing the country. Gottfried Achenwald and Ludwig Schliotzel set up a course in the university, originally called "State Studies". Later generations called the German scholars who engaged in this field the School of State.

(3) Mathematical Statistics School

Founder: Kettler, a Belgian astronomer, numerologist and statistician

Contribution: The French Classical probability introduces statistics and applies it to the study of population, anthropometry, crime and other issues. It completes the combination of statistics and probability theory and begins to transform statistics as a social science into a general science that studies the laws of natural and social phenomena. . Many scholars study statistics from various angles. In order to continuously add new content, they have successively proposed and developed correlation and regression theories, t-distribution and sampling theories, etc., making mathematical statistics quickly develop into a relatively systematic and complete discipline.

(4) The School of Social Statistics

Representative figures: Ernst Engel and Georg Mayer

Viewpoint: The School of Social Statistics believes that statistics The research object of science is social phenomena, and the purpose is to clarify the internal connections and interrelationships of social phenomena. The research methods are limited to large-scale observation methods. It advocates that statistics is an independent substantive social science, and mathematical statistics is an applied mathematics.