Commentary on Zhuangzi’s skeptical epistemology
Zhuangzi stands on the standpoint of relativism and uses skepticism as a method to understand the limitations of the subject’s ability, the subjectivity of the cognitive standards, and the cognitive objects. The four aspects of variability and the dilemma of speech reveal the obstacles to cognitive activities and resolve them through relativism. The recognition of the highest ontology, the Tao, provides the mystical method of the Tao. Zhuangzi's epistemology is the theoretical pillar of his ideal of a happy life, and it is also the methodology on how to realize the transition from a safe life to a happy life.
[Keywords] Zhuangzi; Tao; Skepticism; Relativism
Abstract: Zhuangzi, standing on the position of relativi *** and taking skeptici *** as a method, clears up the obstacles of cognition by way of relativi *** and also offers a mysterious method to explain the highest noumenon,?original substance? of?Tao?from four aspects, i.e., the limitation of subjective ability understanding, the subjectivity of criterion understanding, the change of targets understanding and dilemma of expression. The theoretical pillar of Zhuangzi?s unfettered ideality is based on his epistemology which is also regarded as his methodology of how to realize the unfettered ideality from fate obedience.
Key words: Zhuangzi; Tao; Skeptici ***; Relativi ***
When a philosopher pursues his spiritual home, it is always related to his historical situation at that time. Zhuangzi lived in an era where wars were frequent and life was in danger. Facing the darkness of the world and the impermanence of life and death, Zhuangzi felt the futility of life in troubled times. In addition, the hundreds of schools of thought at that time each held their own academic opinions and argued fiercely. These academic debates were often intertwined with political struggles. Zhuangzi was deeply aware of this. Disgusted. He believes that these epistemological dogmatisms have seriously damaged people's spiritual tranquility and accelerated the "destruction" of the dim world. ?After the completion of Confucianism and Mohism, there was suspicion between joy and anger, ignorance and ignorance deceived each other, good and bad were at odds, false belief and ridicule, and the world declined. ? ("Zaiyou") [1] 274 How to break the dogmatism of various schools of thought, Zhuangzi stood on the standpoint of relativism and used skepticism as a means to develop his unique epistemology. Zhuangzi's epistemology includes two aspects. On the one hand, it reveals the obstacles to people's cognitive activities through skepticism and relativism; on the other hand, it provides relativistic and mystical solutions to this cognitive dilemma.
1. Revelation of obstacles in cognitive activities
1. Limitations of the subject’s ability to understand
Cognition is an objectivity in which the person as the subject conceptually grasps the object. In addition to the objects to rely on, human understanding also needs to rely on the cognitive ability of the subject. Those who have heard know something, and those who have not heard know it because they have no knowledge. ("Human World") [1] 117 The so-called "knowledge" here between "knowledge" and "ignorance" is "wisdom", which refers to the cognitive ability of the subject.
As a cognitive subject, human beings have natural and social attributes. Zhuangzi believes that human cognitive abilities are inherently incomplete and have certain limitations due to their own internal and external conditions. ?The fine and rough ones are due to the tangible ones; the intangible ones cannot be separated by numbers. ? ("Autumn Waters") [1] 418 This tells us that the limit that human cognitive ability can reach can only be the realm of tangible phenomena such as the rough and the rough, and as for the intangible that does not belong to the scope of the fine and rough. The realm of "material quality" is beyond the reach of human reason. Zhuangzi was fully aware of the existential insignificance, loneliness, and helplessness of human beings. In his view, personal life is short, mental ability is limited, and the objects of knowledge are infinite. The time of human life is insignificant compared with the infinite process of the universe: What a person knows is not as good as what he does not know; When it is born, it is not as good as when it is not born. It uses its smallest to seek to exhaust its vast territory, so it is confused and unable to achieve contentment. ? ("Autumn Water") [1] 416 Therefore, people should not hope to understand the world, but should give up all cognitive activities.
2. The subjectivity of cognitive standards
Zhuangzi believes that the standards of knowledge are difficult to determine, because the standards of knowledge vary from person to person and are subjective. Due to different personal positions and perspectives, it is very difficult to establish a universally recognized standard. When people make judgments, they often only rely on their personal self as the standard for judging right and wrong, and they are often accustomed to labeling those who are the same as themselves as right and those who are different from themselves as wrong. ?("Fable")[1]728 Therefore, it is impossible to distinguish right from wrong. From an expanded perspective, human beings often hold an anthropocentric view when interacting with other things. Based on relativism, Zhuangzi breaks the principle of incomparability between different species and treats human beings as cognitive subjects and other types of creatures as cognitive subjects. Subjects treat each other equally and use their different likes, dislikes and reactions to the same object to deny the standards of sensory experience that people use to test right and wrong, thus indicating that right and wrong cannot be tested at all. ?If the people sleep in wet places, their waists will be ailed and they will die. How can a loach be so good? At Wood, which of the four knows the true state of the world? ("Qi Wu Lun") [1] 80 Zhuangzi uses humans and animals to deal with ?righteousness?,? Zhengwei (zhengwei) and Zhengse (zhengse) each use their own feelings and preferences to decide whether to use it to describe interests, rights and wrongs. There is no identical standard or reliable measure, and there is no distinction between them. They take their own intentions as their teachers, so Confucians have Confucian right and wrong, and Mohists have Mohist right and wrong. They each regard what the other is wrong as right, and what the other is right as wrong. Who is right and who is wrong? There is no debate. It is clear and impossible to judge. Zhuangzi's "Debate is invincible" reveals that in a world full of relativity, both sides of the debate are partial to the same song, and they need a third party to arbitrate. Whether the result of a third party's arbitration is reliable requires another person to make a judgment, and whether another person's conclusion is reliable requires another person to make a judgment. This creates an endless cycle, and who is who is not final? Still not sure.
3. Changeability of objects of knowledge
External objective things as objects of knowledge are always in the process of change. They are always changing like a fleeting moment, so the understanding of things Knowing people is impossible to tell the difference. ?The life of things is as sudden as galloping, motionless but unchanging, and unmoving at all times. ? ("Autumn Waters") [1] 425 The certainty of knowledge can only be produced when there is an object to be treated, but the object to be treated is unpredictable, so it is obviously impossible to judge the certainty of knowledge. This point of view is in "Equality of Things" "It is more clearly reflected in "Things are nothing other than that, and things are nothing but what they are? Although, only when you are born, you will die, and when you die, you will be born; only when you can, you can't, and you can't; because you are, you are not, and because you are not, you are. ? ("Equality of Things") [1] 54 Zhuangzi shows us here that things come and go and never stop. Since objects are constantly changing and never stay in a certain state, all relationships between them are also ever-changing. This is quite similar to the view of the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus that "everything flows and nothing lasts forever". Everything changes like a long stream, and all cognitive relationships are always changing. Therefore, value judgments have infinite relativity, so human understanding is impossible and unreliable.
4. The Dilemma of Speech
Zhuangzi believes that because things are constantly changing, people’s speech cannot reveal the true nature of things. The words of speech are the truth of things. Covered, perhaps human words are like birdsong, meaningless. ?Husband's words are not blowing. The speaker has something to say, but the specificity of what he said is undetermined.
Is there any wrong speech? Is there any wrong speech? Do you think that it is different from the pronunciation of the mouth, and there is also debate, or is there no debate? ("Qiwu Lun") [1] 49 Speech is different from blowing the wind, speech must have something. Waiting? means that there is an intention to point to a certain object. People's understanding is correct only if it is consistent with the object. However, the person who is being spoken of is unstable and ever-changing, while the concept that expresses the "said person" is static and dead. When we say "what?" When (said), this? What? (said) has changed. Therefore, in Zhuangzi's view, it is impossible to express things with conceptual language, that is, language cannot reveal its "truth", because conceptual language always requires a one-to-one corresponding relative static relationship to reflect things, while the changes of things are absolute. of.
Human speech not only cannot reflect the truth of general objective things, but also cannot accurately express the Tao. Zhuangzi absorbed Laozi's concept of Taoism, and made an unprecedented sublimation and deification of Taoism, which raised Taoism to a level similar to metaphysical ontology in the traditional Western sense. The way of husband is to have affection and faith. It is born in the heaven and earth but does not last forever. It lasts longer than the ancient times but does not become old. ?("The Great Master") [1] 181 ?Tao? The birth of heaven and earth, but not the things themselves, but the reason why the sky is high, the reason why the earth is wide, the reason why the sun and the moon move, and the reason why all things prosper? So it is ?. But Zhuangzi’s Tao is not entirely the same as ontology in the sense of Western philosophy. Dong Guozi's question about "Tao" shows that in Zhuangzi's "Tao" is not only "things and things", but also "everything gets better and better" and "omnipresent", which is both prior to things and in things. This "things and things" is ?Dominates things in *** tense. As the origin of all things, Tao is the whole, is one, has intangibility and transcendence, which cannot be grasped by human words. ?The Tao of husbands has seals before it begins, and it has eternity before words begin?, ("Equality of Things") [1] 74 Tao is infinite, inexhaustible, and indivisible, but human language concepts are always abstract and always have certain The extension of Tao requires dividing specific things to grasp it. Once Tao is divided, it has boundaries, and it is no longer a whole. Therefore, people cannot grasp the specific Tao using abstract concepts and language. ?The Tao cannot be expressed in words, and words cannot be spoken! Knowing that form is not form! Tao is not named. ? ("Zhibei Journey") [1] 580
Zhuangzi made a relativistic revelation of the predicament of human understanding through the above four aspects, telling people: right and wrong are indistinguishable, and Tao is ineffable. What is obtained can only be some relative opinions, not the ultimate truth. In Zhuangzi's epistemology, the relativity of cognition is fully revealed at the starting point. Relativism becomes the epistemological basis of Zhuangzi's stance and attitude towards observing and treating specific things in nature, society, and various fields of life. ?[2]275
2. Dissolution of Cognitive Difficulties
When Zhuangzi revealed the obstacles to people’s cognitive activities, he divided people’s cognitive activities into two completely different levels: First, The understanding of things and phenomena is called "little knowledge"; the first is the grasp of "Tao", which is called "true knowledge". Correspondingly, he provides different methods on how to resolve obstacles. Use relativism to eliminate the obstacles to obtaining "small knowledge" and maintain peace of mind. The ultimate goal is to use mysticism to achieve the state of true knowledge of "Taoism".
1. Small knowledge? Elimination of obstacles
In Zhuangzi’s view, all things have different natures, and different people, as different subjects of judgment, will favor one over the other for these things with different natures. This breeds issues of right and wrong. How to eliminate these contradictions? Zhuangzi proposed "Qi Yi Ten Thousand Things". The reason why things can be Qi is because their existence is unreal and they have no qualitative definition. Don't regard them as different things. On the contrary, you can equate them exactly. ?Heaven and earth are one finger, and all things are one horse. Is it possible or impossible? If the Tao is unified, its division will lead to success; its completion will lead to destruction. All things without success or destruction will be reunited and become one. ? ("Equality of Things") [1] 59 On the surface, everything has two aspects: yes and no, yes and no, and the difference between these various things is that people label them. The result of the name is the same from the perspective of Tao. All things are "a finger" and "a horse". The same situation holds true from the perspective of the development and changes of things. The division of a thing is destruction to itself, and success to new things, but the overall thing has neither success nor destruction. Zhuangzi used the method of relativism to eliminate and accommodate the conceptual boundaries and practical oppositions between things. He believed: "Nothing in the world is larger than the end of an autumn hair, while Mount Tai is small." Heaven and earth coexist with me, and all things are one.
? ("Equality of Things") [1] 59 All things are born in nothingness with us, and they are all one with us. The nobility, size, and function of things all depend on the perspective and standpoint of observation and understanding. If viewed from the perspective of Tao, these differences do not exist. So the saint wandered in the way of nothingness, and the heaven and man became one. It can be seen that the unification of all things is the beginning of spiritual freedom.
Zhuangzi went from the Qi of all things to the Qi of right and wrong. Since everyone makes distinctions and choices between various things, which leads to confusion about right and wrong, excessive arguments, and even unrest, he must also clarify right and wrong, that is, he must clarify "theory of things." People once discussed whether the title "Equality of Things" is a theory of "equalizing things" or a theory of "equalizing things". In fact, there is no contradiction between the two. It is both a theory of "equalizing things" and a theory of "equalizing things". The famous scholar Zhong Tai said: "Equality of things and theory" means that things are not equalized, and the theory of equalization is not equal. Those whose speech is transitive first, then the discussion is right or wrong [3]
2. The Way of Tao
Zhuangzi doubts the normal cognitive activities of human beings based on relativism , leading to agnosticism. But Zhuangzi is different from ordinary skeptics and agnostics. In his pursuit of true knowledge, he does not doubt the existence of the absolute Tao, nor the role of intuitive experience. He even uses many fables to Tell us that intuitive experience is the way to know "Tao". Although Zhuangzi said that the Tao cannot be expressed, he did not say that the Tao cannot be known. Feng Youlan said: Zhuang Zhou believed that Tao cannot be known through knowledge. This does not mean that Tao cannot be known. This means that Tao cannot be known with ordinary knowledge. All knowledge must be denied in order to "know". ?[4]414 Mr. Feng’s views are undoubtedly superb. Although Zhuangzi said: The Tao cannot be expressed in words, his Tao is inseparable from words. He specifically uses three ways of speaking: 卮yan, tautology, and allegory to express the Tao. Zhuangzi Falling into a paradox of speech. How to transcend this dilemma of being unable to speak but having to speak, so as to realize the understanding of "Tao" and gain great knowledge and true knowledge? Zhuangzi believes that only "forgetting words" can only be achieved through "xinzhai", "sitting and forgetfulness", and "seeing alone". ? and other methods. What is meant by "Xinzhai"? If you have one ambition, you don't listen with your ears but listen with your heart. If you don't listen with your heart but listen with your breath, it's like being empty and treating things. Only the Tao gathers emptiness, and the emptiness is the heart of fasting. ? ("Human World") [1] 117 To achieve emptiness and tranquility, one must abandon the ears, eyes and mind and rely purely on mysterious intuitive experience. Fasting is a time of introspection, mainly a time to cleanse greed and wisdom. To understand Taoism, in addition to the method of fasting the mind, Zhuangzi also talked about the method of sitting and forgetting. To sit and forget is to lose one's limbs, to overthrow one's intelligence, to separate from one's form and to know, which is the same as the Great Passage. ? ("The Great Master") [1] 205 To be one with the Datong is to be one with the Tao. To be one with the Tao, one must abandon the senses and thinking. This state is actually an intuitive understanding, a kind of personal and The mystical experience of oneness with the Supreme Being. Xu Fuguan pointed out: In the state of sitting and forgetting, the knowledge of forgetfulness is the most important. Forgetting knowledge is forgetting decomposition and conceptual knowledge activities. [5] The state of "sitting and forgetting" can also be called "viewing alone". Zhuangzi describes the process and feelings of the Tao most clearly through "viewing alone". Nanbo Zikui asked the girl, "My son is old, but his appearance is like that of a child. Why?" He said, "I have heard the truth." ?Nan Bo Zikui said: ?The way can be learned in evil ways? ?Yue: ?Evil! It is evil! ?I still keep it and tell it to the sun? There is no ancient or modern, and then I can enter the immortality. ?("The Great Master") [1] 183 ?Seeing alone? is the direct recognition of Tao after forgetting everything. This experience is forgetting both body and mind, not distinguishing between things and myself, and integrating with Tao or the universe in imagination. Absolutely harmonious oneness. ?Wander with the Creator above, and be friends with the external life and death, which has no beginning or end. ? ("The World") [1] 884 Therefore, seeing oneself is not only the true knowledge of intuitionism, but also the experience of mysticism.
Here we see that Zhuangzi transforms the objective, ontological Tao outside me into the Tao within the subjective experience scope of "me", and he compares it with Tao. In the spiritual realm of being one, being one with heaven and earth, we have achieved great spiritual freedom. But Zhuangzi stagnated in the world of Tao he constructed, and took it as the highest realm of his life. Zhuangzi's concept of Tao inhibited Zhuangzi's epistemology from empiricism and agnosticism inherent in relativism. The development of this direction prevents the skeptical elements contained in Zhuangzi's relativism from jumping in the direction shown by modern skepticism.
?[2]283
Through Zhuangzi’s revelation of obstacles to cognitive activities and the methods for eliminating them, we believe that Zhuangzi’s logical concept that transcends all logical differences is correct in a certain sense, because right and wrong, Neither good nor evil is absolute. The views he put forward had a corrective effect on the dogmatists at that time, inspiring people to boldly doubt existing theoretical systems and even ideologies, and constantly conduct new explorations. But we can also see that Zhuangzi's doubts and criticisms have gone to the other extreme. He has developed relativism into absolutism, that is, he has completely denied the objective standards for the differences between all things and the differences between right and wrong. and basis. Although Zhuangzi distinguished between small knowledge and great knowledge, he refused to use language and logic to cut and divide things, opposed the destruction of natural "chaos", and denied the existence of "gongsheng" with universal significance. This lurks the danger of dissolving human logic itself, and practice tells us that the role of logic is mainly to identify falsehoods and distinguish things. This is consistent with the tradition of consistent theory of life and epistemology in ancient Chinese philosophy. Zhuangzi's relativistic epistemology begins and ends with skepticism, but his skepticism is not for pure negation, nor to reveal the ultimate root essence of the world, but to place people in nature and ask them how to live in nature. Applying intuitionism to settle one's life in all kinds of changes, thereby opening up a high realm of life, which is unique in the history of Chinese and foreign philosophy. Zhuangzi's unique epistemology had a significant impact on the development of Chinese philosophy in the future. The tradition of emphasizing human nature over nature, being good at ethics but despising logic has had a significant impact. Until now, science and rationality developed on the basis of formal logic are still a lesson that we Chinese need to catch up on.
[References]
[1] Chen Guying. Modern Annotation of Zhuangzi [M]. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2001.
[2] Cui Dahua. Research on Zhuangzi [M]. Beijing: People's Publishing House, 1992.
[3] Zhong Tai. Zhuangzi Fa Wei [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1988: 26.
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[4] Feng Youlan. New History of Chinese Philosophy[M]. Beijing: People's Publishing House, 1998: 414.
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[5] Xu Fuguan. China Artistic Spirit[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai East China Normal University Press, 2001: 44.