Taylor believes that everything is made up of water, and water is the source of everything. This view may be formed by seeing the process of seawater evaporation. According to legend, his motto is "Water is the best". Taylor also declared that "everything has a God". Taylor had an important influence on Greek philosophy. It is said that anaximander is his student. There is also a legend that Pythagoras visited Taylor in his early years and followed his advice and went to Egypt for research.
Heraclitus (about 540 ~ 480 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and the founder of the Eiffel School. Born in Eiffel, a noble family. His article is obscure and full of metaphors. Heraclitus' theory is based on Pythagoras' theory. He borrowed Pythagoras' concept of "harmony" and thought that there was a certain degree of harmony behind opposition and conflict, but coordination itself was not noticeable. He believes that conflict makes the world full of vitality. Heraclitus also believes that fire is the source of all things. "Everything is replaced by fire, and fire is also replaced by everything." Heraclitus also believes that everything is fluid and everything is constantly changing. His famous saying is: "People can't step into the same river twice, because this river is different from this person." Socrates therefore called Heraclitus a "wanderer". Heraclitus' theory of opposition points out that everything in the world is relative, and it is impossible to understand good without understanding evil. Heraclitus thinks that God is something that covers the whole world. But he often replaces God with logos (that is, reason). He believes that there is "universal reason" in the world to guide everything that happens in nature.
Pythagoras (Greek ∈υθ α γ? ρα? About 580-500 years ago), an ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician and music theorist. Born in Samos Island, he traveled to Egypt in his early years, then settled in Croton, a city in southern Italy, and established his own club. In 5 10 BC, Pythagoras moved to Medapenton again because of the rebellion of the opposition until his death. Pythagoras' philosophy is influenced by Oedipus, and there are some mysterious factors. He believes that there are three kinds of people in society, and the soul belongs to the result of reincarnation. But at the same time, from Pythagoras, Greek philosophy began to produce the tradition of mathematics. Pythagoras used mathematics to study music, and the resulting concept of "harmony" also had a great influence on later ancient Greek philosophers. Pythagoras was also the first person to discover Pythagoras theorem (also called Pythagoras theorem in the west).
In cosmology, Pythagoras combined the Miletus school with his own theory of numbers. He thinks that there are many but limited worlds, and insists that the earth is round, but he abandons the geocentric theory of Miletus school. Pythagoras' study of mathematics also produced later idealism and universalism. In other words, there is a difference between being sensible and being sensible. Emotional things are perfect and eternal, and emotional things are flawed. This thought was carried forward by Plato and has ruled philosophy and theology since then.
Socrates (Greek: ∑ρρ? τη? (469 BC-399 BC) was a famous philosopher in ancient Greece. Aristotle, one of his students, is a student of Plato and Plato, also known as the "three sages of Greece". Born in the golden age of Athens ruled by Pei Ricqles, he died in the decline of Athens. (the period after the fall of the thirty tyrants after the Peloponnesian War). Born in poverty, my father is a sculptor and my mother is a midwife. Socrates is a historical figure with distinctive personality, full of legend and mixed comments. Socrates is Plato's teacher He didn't write all his life, and his remarks and thoughts were mostly found in Plato's and Xenophon's works, such as Socrates' Words and deeds. Socrates was finally forced to drink poisonous violet juice and died because he violated the interests of the powerful people at that time. His career has long depended on education. Socrates' teaching method is unique, and he often educates by inspiring and debating. Socrates is the founder of Plato's philosophical line. Socrates attached importance to ethics and was the first person in ancient Greece who proposed to find universal morality with reason and thinking. He is the founder of moral philosophy. He emphasized that morality is guided by reason, so "virtue is knowledge" and thought that good comes from knowledge and evil comes from ignorance. In the history of European philosophy, firstly, the teleology of idealism was put forward, which believed that everything was created and arranged by God and reflected God's wisdom and purpose. Put forward the proposition of "knowing your own ignorance", and think that only those who give up the pursuit of nature (because it is God's territory) and admit their ignorance are smart people. The most knowledgeable person is God, and knowledge ultimately comes from God. True knowledge is obedience to God. In logic, Aristotle thinks that Socrates puts forward inductive argument, finds out definite arguments from concrete facts, and pays attention to accurately explaining concepts by means of general definition. Socrates' philosophy mainly thinks that there are standards for right and wrong. It is said that Socrates' family life is unfortunate and his wife is a bitch.
Plato (Greek: ∏ λ? τ ω ν (English: Plato, about 427 BC-347 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher whose main philosophical thought was idealism, which had a great and far-reaching influence on western philosophical thought. Formerly known as Ali Stoertz, he is the fourth in the family. Plato was nicknamed by his PE teacher. He is a student of Socrates and a teacher of Aristotle. The Republic is his most important work. Plato was born in Athens and received a good aristocratic education. At the age of about twenty, he began to follow Socrates. In 399 BC, Socrates was tried and sentenced to death, and Plato fled to Megara for refuge. Later, he traveled everywhere, including Sicily, southern Italy, Egypt and other places. In 387 BC, Plato returned to Athens and founded the Academy. The name of the college is related to the address of the college, and the location of the college is related to the legendary Greek Heroes College, hence the name. Academy is the earliest teaching institution in the West and the predecessor of the developed universities in the Middle Ages. The college existed for more than 900 years until it was closed by Justinian the Great in 529 AD. The college is greatly influenced by Pythagoras, and its curriculum is similar to the traditional topics of Pythagoras school, including arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and acoustics. In 367 BC, Plato traveled again. At this time, the college has been established for more than 20 years. He came to Syracuse to put his ideas into practice, but was forced into exile. In 360 BC, he returned to Athens and continued to teach and write in the college. Plato's main philosophical thoughts are recorded in the form of dialogue. In Plato's dialogues, there are many dialogues in the name of Socrates, so it is difficult to distinguish Socrates' thoughts from Plato's.
Aristotle (Greek: α ρ ι ο? λη? ) is a famous philosopher, scientist and educator in ancient Greece. He was a student of Plato and a teacher of Alexander the Great. He summed up the achievements of the development of ancient Greek philosophy since Thales, distinguished philosophy from other sciences for the first time, and initiated independent research on logic, ethics, politics and biology. His academic thoughts had a great influence on the development of western culture and science. Aristotle divided science into: (1) theoretical science (mathematics, natural science and the first philosophy later called metaphysics); (2) Practical science (ethics, politics, economics, strategy and decoration); (3) The science of creation, namely poetics.
brief introduction
When it comes to ancient Greek philosophy, we have to mention three consecutive figures: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Together, the three of them founded today's western philosophy. Although Aristotle is a student of Plato, his views are quite different from Plato's. Plato was an idealist and a rationalist. Plato believes that our material world is actually an imperfect world with a perfect "conceptual world" behind it. On the other hand, Aristotle believes that our understanding of the world comes from our senses. Therefore, in fact, Aristotle's philosophy initiated the later scientific method. Aristotle's works still exist today. Most of them are textbooks, and many of them are even Aristotle's students' notes. In the early Middle Ages, Aristotle's works were not translated due to the prevalence of neo-Platonism. But in the12nd century, Aristotemism began to rise, and his works were translated into various European languages, forming the scholasticism in the late Middle Ages. This philosophy was later refuted by early modern philosophers such as Galileo and Ducal.
all one's life
Aristotle was born in Starkila, Thrace, and his father was a doctor of the king of Macedonia. In 366 BC, Aristotle was sent to study in Plato Academy in Athens, where he lived for 20 years until his teacher Plato died. After Plato's death, Aristotle left Athens because the new leader of the college was more sympathetic to the mathematical tendency in Plato's philosophy, which made Aristotle unbearable. However, it can be seen from Aristotle's works that although Aristotle disagreed with Poseidon and other new leaders of the academy, he still maintained good relations with them. After leaving college, Aristotle accepted the invitation of his former classmate Hermias for the first time to visit Asia Minor. Hermia was then the ruler of Misia along the coast of Asia Minor. Aristotle also married Hermias' niece there. But in 344 BC, Hermias was murdered in a riot, and Aristotle had to leave Asia Minor and go to Terrini with his family. Three years later, Aristotle was called to his hometown by King Philip II of Macedonia and became the teacher of Alexander the Great, who was only 13 years old at that time. Plutarch, a famous biographer in ancient Greece, believes that Aristotle instilled moral, political and philosophical education into the future world leader. We also have reason to believe that Aristotle also used his influence to play an important role in the formation of Alexander the Great's thought. It was under the influence of Aristotle that Alexander the Great always cared about science and respected knowledge. However, Aristotle and Alexander the Great may not have exactly the same political views. The former's political view is based on the declining Greek city-state, while the centralized empire established by Alexander the Great is tantamount to the invention of barbarians for the Greeks. After Philip's death in 335 BC, Aristotle returned to Athens and established his own school there. The name of the college (Lv Keang) is named after the Wolf Killer (Lv Keang) near the temple of Apollo. During this period, Aristotle wrote many philosophical works while giving lectures. Aristotle has the habit of walking in corridors and gardens when giving lectures. Because of this, the philosophy of academy is called "carefree philosophy" or "wandering philosophy". Aristotle also wrote many works in this period, mainly about natural science and philosophy in Nature and Physics, and the language used was much more obscure than Plato's dialogues. Many of his works are based on class notes, and some are even the class notes of his students. So some people regard Aristotle as the author of the first textbook in the West. After Alexander's death, the Athenians began to rebel against Macedonian rule. Because of his relationship with Alexander, Aristotle was accused of ungodly and had to take refuge in Calais. His college was handed over to Theophrastos. A year later, in 322 BC, Aristotle died of a disease accumulated for many years. The rumor that he poisoned himself or committed suicide by jumping into the sea because he couldn't explain the tidal phenomenon was completely unfounded.
philosophy
Although Aristotle was a student of Plato, he was the first person to publicly criticize Plato. What he is particularly opposed to is the part about mathematics in Plato's philosophy. Some people think that Aristotle was familiar with mathematics at that time, but he never understood Plato's mathematics. In addition, Aristotle also criticized Plato's theory of phase. Although he agrees that the "form" of a thing cannot be changed, he believes that this "form" does not exist in itself, but is a concept formed after people feel the real thing. So he thinks that "shape" is actually the characteristic of things themselves. He pointed out that any idea or concept we have enters our consciousness through our senses. But Aristotle does not deny that man is rational. It is with reason that people can distinguish different sensory impressions. But at the same time, he pointed out that reason is completely vacuum before human senses experience anything. Aristotle believes that there is a causal relationship in nature. He thinks there are four different reasons in nature. The concept of "cause" in ancient Greece is different from the concept of "cause and effect" in modern times. "Cause" corresponds to "Why" but not to "Result". That is, objective reasons, material reasons, dynamic reasons and formal reasons. Aristotle put forward the so-called syllogism in logic. In the next two thousand years, his theory has been the only recognized form of argument in the West. In ethics, Aristotle emphasized the so-called "golden mean". This may be similar to the concept of "harmony" of Greek naturalist philosophers. He believes that people should not be biased towards any extreme, and only balance can lead a happy and harmonious life. Aristotle believes that man is a natural political animal, and unless he lives in society, he is not a real man. He also proposed three good political systems: monarchy, aristocratic politics and democratic politics (which he called "regime").
view of science
Aristotle marked a turning point in the history of ancient Greek science, because he was the last person to put forward the whole world system and the first person to engage in extensive experience investigation. In astronomy, Aristotle founded the theory that the running celestial bodies are physical entities. In physics, Aristotle believes that objects can only keep moving under the direct contact of a constantly acting promoter. Aristotle believes that "vacuum" cannot exist, because space must be filled with matter. Only in this way can physical effects be transmitted through direct contact. Newton, a physicist of later generations, pointed out the fallacy of Aristotle's assertion and pointed out that "force is not the direct reason to keep an object moving." Force can only change the motion state of an object. It can be said that before the building of Newton's classical mechanical system was built, the whole western world was ruled by Aristotle's physics.
Artistic view
In drama, Aristotle's Poetics is the first summative work to discuss the tragic art of ancient Greece. In his book, he put forward the famous imitation theory, arguing that tragedy "describes serious events and imitation actions in a certain length;" The purpose is to arouse pity and fear, leading to the purification of these emotions; The protagonist often encounters unexpected misfortune, which leads to tragedy, so the conflict of tragedy becomes the conflict between man and fate. "This is the first time in the history of art to discuss the essence of drama, which also created Aristotle's poetic tradition. His views were later developed into the art of poetry by Horace in ancient Rome, which indirectly influenced the whole history of western art. ..
Archimedes (287 BC-2 BC12) was a great philosopher, mathematician and physicist in ancient Greece. Born in Syracuse, Sicily. Archimedes has been to Alexandria. It is said that when he lived in Alexandria, he invented the Archimedes spiral water lift, which is still used in Egypt. During the Second Punic War, Roman troops besieged Syracuse, and finally Archimedes died at the hands of Roman soldiers.
Scientific achievements
Archimedes invented a cross goniometer for astronomical measurement and made an instrument for measuring the angle between the sun and the earth. His most famous discovery is the principle of buoyancy and relative density, that is, the apparent weight of an object in a liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid, which was later known as Archimedes principle. In geometry, he created a method to find pi, that is, the relationship between the circumference and diameter of a circle. Meade famously said, "Give me a fulcrum, and I can move the earth." He devoted his life to the scientific research of volume and buoyancy. There is an interesting story. When the king asked the goldsmith to build a crown with pure gold, the king asked Archimedes to identify it because he suspected that the goldsmith had added sundries. Archimedes has been thinking about the method of identification. Just when he took a bath in the bathtub and saw the water overflowing, he realized the method of measuring the volume of irregular objects by buoyancy. He ran out of the bathroom in high spirits and shouted, "I found it!" " I forgot for a moment that I was naked. In addition, Archimedes also made mathematical achievements in geometry. Archimedes was the first engineer to talk about science. In his research, he used Euclid's method, assuming first, and then deducing the result with strict logic. He constantly searched for general principles and applied them to special projects. His works always combine mathematics and physics, so Archimedes became the father of physics. He applied the lever principle to the war, and his deeds of defending silas pigeons are widely known. He also used the same principle to derive the volumes of some spheres and bodies of revolution (ellipsoid, paraboloid of revolution, hyperboloid of revolution). In addition, he also discussed the related principles and achievements of archimedean spiral (such as the trajectory left by flies walking outward from the center of a turntable rotating at a constant speed), circle, ball and cylinder. Archimedes effectively used Euclid's approximation concept. He proposed that a circle circumscribes a polygon, and a similar circle circumscribes a polygon. When the number of sides is large enough, the perimeters of two polygons will approach the circumference of a circle from top to bottom. He used hexagons first, and then doubled the number of sides one by one until he reached 96 polygons. The estimated value of π is between 3. 14 163 and 3. 14286. In addition, he calculated that the surface area of the ball is four times that of the maximum inscribed circle. And he deduced that the volume of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder is two-thirds of that of a cylinder, and this theorem was engraved on his tombstone.
work
Methodology
Floating body
This book discusses the buoyancy of objects and studies the stability of rotating projectiles in fluids.
On balls and cylinders
Starting from several definitions and axioms, this book deduces more than 50 propositions about the area and volume of balls and cylinders.
The balance of a plane figure or its center of gravity
Based on several basic assumptions, this book demonstrates the principle of mechanics through strict geometric methods, and finds out the center of gravity of some plane figures.
Sand counter
This book is mainly about designing a method that can represent any large number.
Lever
On cracked cone surfaces and spheres
Quadrature of parabola
On the spiral
Jean-jean-jacques rousseau (1765438+June 28th, 2002-65438+July 2nd, 2078) is a Swiss and French philosopher, writer and political theorist. Rousseau was born in a watchmaker's family in Geneva, Switzerland, and his ancestors were exiled from France to Switzerland. Because of his poor family, he has not received a systematic education. Worked as an apprentice, handyman, family secretary, teacher, wandering musician, etc. Later, he was wanted and exiled. Finally, there is Emmenonville in the northeast of Paris. His mother died after he was born, while his father left him when he was very young. Rousseau proposed that in the natural state (the state of animals, the state before the emergence of human civilization and society), people are essentially good and are "noble barbarians". Good people are tortured and eroded by their social experiences. The development of society has led to the unfortunate continuation of mankind. Rousseau's On Art and Science (1750) emphasizes that the progress of art and science has not brought benefits to mankind. He believes that the accumulation of knowledge strengthens the government's rule and suppresses individual freedom. He concluded that the development of material civilization actually destroyed sincere friendship and replaced it with jealousy, fear and doubt. The Theory of Social Contract, which describes the relationship between man and society, is probably Rousseau's most important work. It begins with the sentence "People are born free, but they are everywhere in chains". This book was published in 1762, which was neglected at that time, but later became one of the most influential works reflecting the traditional western political thought. Contrary to his early works, Rousseau believes that the natural state is an animal state without law and morality, and good people only exist because of the emergence of society. In the natural state, people often have to compete with each other. By uniting with others, people can face more threats, so everyone is willing to unite. People unite and exist as a collective, which forms a society. A social contract is an agreement on the social status of its members. In On Inequality, Rousseau tries to interpret the appearance of government as a contract between the ruler and the ruled. The only reason why people are willing to give up personal freedom and be ruled by others is that they see that in a society with a formal government, individual rights, happiness and property can be better protected than in an anarchic society where everyone only cares about himself. However, Rousseau also pointed out that the original contract had obvious defects. The richest and most powerful people in society "cheat" the public and make inequality an eternal feature of human society. He mentioned in the Theory of Social Contract that the contract between the ruler and the ruled should be reconsidered. The government should not protect the wealth and rights of a few people, but should pay attention to the rights and equality of all people. No matter what form of government, if it is not responsible for everyone's rights, freedoms and equality, it will destroy the social contract as the fundamental political authority. This thought is the foundation of the French Revolution and the American Revolution. In fact, it is no exaggeration to say that the French Revolution and the American Revolution were the direct results of Rousseau's abstract social contract theory. Rousseau was one of the earliest modern writers who criticized the private property system, so he was also considered as one of the founders of modern socialism and communism (see Marx). At the same time, he questioned whether the wishes of most people were necessarily correct. He pointed out that the government should exclude the influence of the will of the majority (see democracy) and defend freedom, equality and justice. The most important principle in Rousseau's political philosophy is that politics should not be divorced from morality. When a country can't serve people with virtue, it can't play its functions normally, and it can't establish its authority over individuals. The second important principle is freedom, and defending freedom is one of the purposes of founding the country. Rousseau's view on education has profoundly influenced modern educational theory. He reduced the importance of written knowledge and suggested that children's emotional education should precede rational education. He put special emphasis on learning through personal experience.
"Let's go back to nature"
In his early works, he described nature as the primitive state of primitive life. Later, under Voltaire's criticism, he described nature as the spontaneity of the process of establishing his own personality and personal world. Therefore, nature means inner state, complete personality and spiritual freedom. In contrast, society is imprisoned and enslaved under the guise of civilization. Therefore, returning to nature is to restore the power of this natural process and get rid of all kinds of external oppression and civilized prejudice. Confessions, an autobiography published by 1782, is one of the earliest and most influential self-exposure works, which makes no secret of personal ugliness and has a far-reaching influence on later generations. China writer Yu Dafu was deeply influenced by Rousseau's self-exposure style.
Rousseau was buried in the Pantheon in Paris.