1. The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period were a period of great social and historical changes in our country
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the slavery system collapsed and the feudal system was established. This distinctive feature of the times is reflected in the following aspects:
(1) Economically: During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the use of iron tools and the promotion of cattle farming marked a significant increase in social productivity. Our country's feudal economy has been further developed, especially in the north. The leap in productivity caused a revolution in production relations. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the well-field system (public land) was gradually replaced by feudal private land ownership, and was finally established through reforms in various countries.
(2) Politically: During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, wars between princes fighting for hegemony destroyed the old order of slavery and brought disaster and suffering to the people. However, the results of the war accelerated the reunification process, promoted national integration, and accelerated the pace of change. As the power of the emerging landlord class grew, they successively launched reform movements in various vassal states, and a new feudal system was finally established. The Qin State, which carried out the most thorough reforms, became the strongest among the vassal states, and later developed into the core force of unification.
(3) Culturally: Culture is a reflection of the politics and economy of a certain period. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, economic development promoted the progress of science and technology; social changes contributed to the unprecedented activity of thought and the prosperity of literature and art.
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the old system and the old ruling order were destroyed, new systems and new ruling orders were established, and new class forces were growing. Hidden in this process and constituting the root of this social change is the revolution of productivity characterized by iron tools. The development of productive forces eventually led to reform movements and the establishment of feudal systems in various countries, and also led to the prosperity of ideology and culture.
2. Compare the similarities and differences between wars for hegemony in the Spring and Autumn Period and annexation wars in the Warring States Period
(1) Similarities: ① Both have the purpose of expanding territory and plundering population. ② The influence of the Spring and Autumn hegemony and the Warring States mergers were that the big swallowed up the small and the strong bullied the weak, which reduced the number of vassal states, accelerated the disintegration of slavery and promoted the formation of feudalism. At the same time, it will inevitably cause huge damage to people's lives and production.
(2) Differences: ①The annexation during the Warring States Period was in the nature of a feudal annexation war, while the struggle for hegemony in the Spring and Autumn Period was only a war for hegemony among slave-owning powers. ②The wars for hegemony in the Spring and Autumn Period promoted national integration and were conducive to the growth of feudal factors. After the war of annexation during the Warring States period transformed into a war of feudal unification, it led to the creation of a great feudal empire.
(3) The battles for hegemony and annexation wars among the princes have reduced the number of princely states, and the gradual integration of various ethnic groups. The people are eager for unification, thus forming a trend of unification.
3. Compare the differences between the Spring and Autumn Reform and the Warring States Reform, and analyze the root causes of their differences
(1) Difference: The purpose of the Spring and Autumn Reform is to enrich the country and strengthen the army, laying the foundation for hegemony ; The content is to appoint talented people and reform internal affairs, production, and military affairs; the characteristic is that it is carried out on the premise of maintaining the old system. The purpose of the Warring States Reform was to establish and consolidate the dictatorship of the landlord class and complete unification; its contents included the abolition of well fields, recognition of private land ownership, abolition of the privileges of slave-owning aristocrats, and the realization of centralization of power; its characteristics were the replacement of slavery by the feudal system.
(2) Reason: Different productivity levels. During the Spring and Autumn Period, slavery only began to disintegrate; during the Warring States Period, the state ownership of land in slavery had been mostly replaced by feudal private ownership of land, and the power of the landlord class increased.
4. Understanding of the thoughts of various schools of thought
(1) The essence and influence of Laozi’s political thought:
Laozi advocates inaction in politics. Facing the changing society, his ideas essentially represented the interests of the declining slave-owning aristocracy. Although no ruler at the time would adopt his political ideas, his ideas had a profound impact on later generations. After the social turmoil (especially in the early Western Han Dynasty, his thoughts once became the ruling ideology), society needed to recuperate and recuperate. Laozi's thought of inaction contributed to the recovery of the economy and the stability and development of society. However, the thought of inaction is not conducive to strengthening centralization and has a negative side.
(2) How to understand the class essence of Confucius:
The textbook says that Confucius advocated maintaining the "rituals" of the Zhou Dynasty and advocated "order" between noble and humble. This was his political thought conservative part of it. In the face of social changes, it was obvious that Confucius, like Laozi, represented the interests of the declining slave-owning aristocracy, so Confucius traveled around the country, but no king adopted his ideas. Finally, he returned to the state of Lu in depression, teaching and educating people with peace of mind.
(3) How to evaluate Mohist thought:
Mohist reflects the interests of small producers, advocating universal love and non-aggression, which is progressive, but it is not in line with the laws of social development. This cannot be achieved in a class society.
(4) The essence and status of Mencius’ thoughts:
Mencius advocated “benevolent government” and “the people should be valued more than the king.” Its fundamental purpose is not to consider the people, but to provide long-term stability for the rulers. , his ideas represent the interests of the emerging landlord class, but in the face of a life-and-death annexation war, Mencius's thoughts are powerless on how to remain invincible in the war. Therefore, Sima Qian commented on Mencius as "long-distanced and broad-minded." ". Mencius' thought had a great influence on later generations, and it was an important source of "people-oriented" thought in later generations.
(5) How to understand Xunzi’s materialism:
Material determines consciousness. The use of iron tools and ox farming during the Warring States Period, the development of productivity, and the improvement of human beings’ ability to conquer nature and transform it are reflected in The materialistic thought of "controlling the destiny of heaven and using it" emerged in Xunzi's thought. This kind of thinking has also greatly inspired people's confidence in conquering and transforming nature, but it also overemphasizes human subjective initiative and fails to realize that the development of human subjective initiative must be based on respect for objective laws. The destruction of the environment by humans in ancient society must be related to this.
(6) Dialectical analysis of the thoughts and status of Legalists:
Han Feizi’s thoughts: As history moves forward, the present must prevail over the past, advocating changes according to actual needs; governing the country “by law” "Based on the law" and "the law is not noble"; he advocated the establishment of a feudal country with an autocratic monarchy and centralized power. Legalism represents the interests of the emerging landlord class. Its thoughts dare to face the social reality of great changes and great turmoil. It conforms to the trend of unification, is conducive to the establishment and consolidation of the feudal system, and adapts to the needs of social reality. Therefore, among various schools, only Legalism The idea of ??family was the most useful at that time, and the reforms in various countries are the best proof. However, excessive "rule of law" can easily lead to tyranny and intensify class conflicts, so it should be evaluated in two. The subsequent short-lived death of the Qin Dynasty due to tyranny shows that Legalist thought cannot maintain the long-term stability of rule.
(3) Analysis of difficult knowledge
1. Use the relationship between productivity, production relations, economic base and superstructure to analyze the social changes in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period
From the diagram above, we can see that the root cause of the change: the development of productivity; the direct cause: taxation issues (the "initial taxation of acres" in Lu State and the "reduction of taxes based on land" in Qi State); Social conditions: economic basis - private ownership of land by feudal landlords, class basis - the promotion of the emerging landlord class.
2. Reasons for the success of Shang Yang’s reform
(1) The reform conformed to the trend of historical development and was in line with the national conditions of Qin. This is the fundamental reason for the success of the reform.
(2) The reform received strong support from Qin Xiaogong, and the reform measures were resolutely implemented. This was also an important reason for the success of the reform.
(3) Shang Yang dared to fight resolutely against the old forces regardless of his personal safety.
Reminder: Shang Yang’s reform is the inevitable result of the development of the times and a manifestation of the development of the times. Therefore, Shang Yang’s reform embodies the principle of “advancing with the times”.
3. Reasons for the prosperity of ideology and culture during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period
(1) The improvement of productivity and the development of social economy provided a material foundation for the development of ideology and culture.
(2) The transformation of class relations, the collapse of slavery, and the establishment of the feudal system provided political prerequisites for the prosperity of thought and culture.
(3) The turbulent social environment and drastic social changes have made the ideological world extremely active, which forces people to think. Many thinkers express their opinions from different angles, thus forming a situation of "a hundred schools of thought contending".
(4) Based on the needs of wars for hegemony and political needs, rulers of various countries have recruited talents and given preferential treatment to intellectuals. It has become a common practice to cultivate "scholars". This relaxed environment and superior status are also conducive to the prosperity of culture. .
(5) The rise of private schools and the emergence of lecturing style have created a large number of knowledgeable and talented thinkers who dare to express their political views.
(6) The continuous strengthening of ethnic integration has expanded cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups and enriched the culture of the Central Plains.
(7) The achievements of the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties laid the foundation for the subsequent prosperity of science and technology and culture.
Ideology and culture are the reflection of politics and economy in the ideological field. Therefore, the reason for its prosperity is inseparable from political and economic factors.
Economic and social changes during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period (Part 2)
Materials and Notes
The smelting of iron and the promotion of iron tools
In the Shang Dynasty, the use of iron had already begun. At the end of 1972, an iron-edged copper ax was unearthed from the Shang Dynasty ruins in Taixi, Gaocheng, Hebei. This weapon has an iron blade embedded in the front of the copper body. The blade has been scientifically identified and proven to be forged iron. This iron is not artificially smelted, but comes from meteorite (among meteorites that explode and fall to the ground, some of them contain more iron or are pure iron, which are called meteorite). Because artificial iron smelting was not known at the time, the name of meteorite is Use has no practical significance in social production.
In recent years, archeology has discovered an iron sword with a copper handle unearthed from the Guo State Cemetery in Sanmenxia. Scholars believe that this is the earliest authentic iron artifact discovered in my country in the late Western Zhou Dynasty. At the beginning of the Spring and Autumn Period of the Western Zhou Dynasty, the poem "Poetry Qin Feng Si" written by Qin Xianggong (reigned 777 BC - 766 BC) contains the sentence "Si Kongfu", which says that the four horses driving the car are as black as iron, especially stout. Using iron to describe the color of the horse shows that iron has been used and is familiar to people. The iron at that time was wrought iron, usually called "block ironmaking", which was obtained by reducing ore from charcoal at 800 to 1,000 °C. When it came out of the furnace, it was a solid block containing a lot of impurities. This kind of iron has several shortcomings: first, after one furnace is smelted, it cannot flow out of the furnace. When the iron blocks are taken out, the furnace will be damaged, and continuous production cannot be achieved. The productivity is low and the output is small. Second, it requires repeated forging to create some simple-shaped utensils. Third, the carbon content is very low and the texture is very soft. Due to the disadvantages mentioned above, this type of iron is unlikely to be of general use. Judging from the iron tools unearthed so far, my country has invented pig iron smelting technology at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period. Pig iron is smelted at 1 150 to 1 300 ° C. It is in a liquid state when it comes out of the furnace. It can be produced continuously and can be cast into shape. It has high carbon content and a relatively hard texture. This greatly improves smelting and forming efficiency as well as product output and quality. Therefore, making iron from lumps to pig iron is a leap in the history of iron-making technology. Pig iron was not smelted in Europe until the 14th century AD, 1,900 years later than in my country. An iron piece from the late Spring and Autumn Period unearthed in Chengqiao, Liuhe, Jiangsu Province, was scientifically analyzed and found to be white pig iron. This is the earliest pig iron object unearthed in my country so far, and also the earliest pig iron object in the world.
As for the promotion of iron tools, judging from written records, "Guoyu Qiyu" has this content: "U.S. dollars are used to cast swords and halberds to test dogs and horses; evil gold is used to cast (chú, hoe) ""U.S. dollar" refers to bronze, and "evil gold" refers to iron, which is used to cast production tools. It can be seen that in the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period, Qi State had already used iron farm tools. "Zuo Zhuan" records in the 29th year of Zhao Gong (513 BC): The Jin State used iron to cast a punishment tripod, and the punishment book written by Fan Xuanzi was cast on the tripod. The iron used to make the tripod was collected from the people as military tribute. It can be seen that there were many folk irons in Jin Dynasty at that time. It is not a simple matter to cast the punishment book on the iron tripod. Even if the punishment book does not have many words, there should always be some provisions. The tripod should not be too small, and the cast iron in the required flowing state should not be too little. Otherwise, success will be impossible. It can be seen that by at least the late Spring and Autumn Period, the cast iron smelting technology in the Central Plains was relatively mature.
Judging from the unearthed cultural relics, the iron tools unearthed from the late Spring and Autumn Period Wu Tomb in Chengqiao, Liuhe, Jiangsu, the Chu Tomb in Deshan, Changde, Hunan, the Chu Tomb in Changsha, and the Beixizhuang site in Houma, Shanxi are all from the Spring and Autumn Period. A late relic. It includes iron blocks, iron bars, iron cuttings, iron (qiāng, an ancient ax), iron (bó, agricultural tools for hoeing and removing grass), iron, iron plows, steel swords, etc. Some of these ironware were forged from wrought iron produced by the block smelting method, and some were cast from pig iron. According to underground excavations and literature records, iron farm tools have been used to a considerable extent during the Spring and Autumn Period. At that time, some copper tools (such as copper hoes, copper shovels, etc.) and a large number of agricultural tools made of wood, stone, bones, clams and other raw materials still played a certain role in the production field. Although the use of iron tools was still in its infancy during the Spring and Autumn Period, it marked that the development level of agricultural productivity had entered a new stage. As a new productivity factor, ironware created conditions for developing mountains and forests, expanding cultivated land, developing water conservancy and transportation, and promoting social production. Since liberation, iron tools have been unearthed from the mid-Warring States period sites in the vast area starting from Liaoning in the north, to Guangdong in the south, to the Shandong Peninsula in the east, and to Shaanxi and Sichuan in the west, including Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, Wei and Qin. And there are many types and large quantities.
In the Warring States Wei Tombs in Huixian, Henan, 58 iron farm tools were unearthed, including plowshares, hoes, hoes, sickles, axes, etc. Among them, two "∨"-shaped plowshares, although there is no device for turning over the soil, have been It can play the role of breaking ground and creating trenches. The "Iron Farm Tools of the Warring States Period" in the textbook refers to the iron tools unearthed in Huixian County. The widespread use of iron farm tools eliminated wooden and stone farm tools and gained dominance. This facilitates the felling of forests, the construction of water conservancy projects, the reclamation of wasteland and intensive plowing, and promotes the development of agricultural production.
Ox farming
It turns out that the Central Plains area used pedal farming tools called grass. The cultivators held the handle of the grass with their hands and stepped on the blade with their feet to hold the sharp edge. Only by piercing into the soil and prodding outward can a piece of soil be dug up. Plowing the land means digging up the soil piece by piece. The cultivator needs to dig a piece and take a step back. This method of cultivating the land with intervals of retreat requires a lot of effort but has poor results. Legend has it that oxen were used to drive vehicles as early as the Shang Dynasty. Some people believe that oxen plowed in the Shang Dynasty based on the pictogram of the word "plough" in the oracle bone inscriptions, but there is insufficient evidence. By the Spring and Autumn Period, there is no doubt that cattle farming was already in use. In this way, the cultivated land becomes continuous and forward, with less effort and good results. This is an important reform in farming technology. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, cattle farming began in the East. After Shang Yang's Reform, the Qin State came to the fore and widely used cattle farming. At that time, horses also began to be used to plow the fields. In order to attach importance to agriculture, Shang Yang stipulated: "Those who steal horses will die, and those who steal cattle will be punished." "Lun on Salt and Iron: San Qiu Chapter" said: "In ancient times," people used horses to do the work, and they were pulled when they were doing it. When it comes to a car, "when it stops, it becomes a plow." The "ancient ones" mentioned by the Han people should refer to the Warring States and Qin Dynasties. The combination of animal power and iron tools provided conditions for intensive farming.
The progress of agricultural technology and the rise of agricultural science
Agricultural technology made significant progress during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. In the words of the time, the farming technology was called "deep plowing and easy plowing". The plowing should be deep and the weeding should be done quickly. As for the irrigation method, oranges have been widely used in the Central Plains area to irrigate, replacing the original method of holding a bottle to irrigate in the past. During the Warring States Period, farmers were aware of the importance of fertilizing. "Xunzi: Fuguo Chapter" contains the words "fields with many manures", indicating that they were well aware of the importance of fertilizing at that time. Not only do they know how to apply animal manure, but they also know how to use plant ash and green manure. They also know how to cut wild grass and burn it into ash or fill it with water to make it rot and use it as fertilizer to improve the soil. Paying attention to accumulation and fertilization is an important factor in increasing agricultural output. Europe did not start fertilizing until the 10th and 11th centuries, 1,300 to 1,400 years later than my country. During the Warring States Period, attention was paid to the selection of fine varieties. "When you fight against stones, you get the best seeds." This means that in order to increase grain production, you must choose the best varieties. People have begun to study soil, advocating distinguishing soil properties first and selecting crops suitable for planting in certain soils for sowing. The remarkable progress of agriculture during the Warring States Period created a fine tradition of intensive farming in my country. At that time, people already knew how to use human power to change the status of the soil. That is, the cultivated land must be sorted according to whether it is dry, hard or wet. Hard land must be plowed first, and wet and soft land can be plowed later. Pay attention to moisture conservation in fields with high drought; pay attention to drainage in fields with low humidity. In order to create excellent conditions for the growth of crops, the ridges should be wide and flat, and the furrows should be small and deep; seedlings must be arranged vertically and horizontally in rows to facilitate ventilation; seedlings should be left densely on fertile land and sparsely on thin land. If ineffective tillers are added, dense seedlings in thin soil will die due to insufficient water and fertilizer supply. These practices are in line with agricultural science principles. People at that time also understood the importance of farming seasons. The "Deshi" wheat grows well, has strong plants, large ears, deep color, heavy kernels, few insect pests, high flour extraction rate, fragrant taste, and is good for resisting hunger when eaten; the "Xianshi" wheat seedlings grow too early , susceptible to pests and diseases; the wheat seedlings in "Houshi" are fragile, with sparse ears and poor color. Therefore, it is emphasized that cultivation must be timely.
The increase in agricultural output during the Warring States Period
Due to the widespread use of iron farm tools, the development of water conservancy and irrigation and the advancement of agricultural technology, especially the increase in farmers' enthusiasm for production, the output per unit area increased. improved. According to Li Kui's estimate of Wei's agricultural output in the early Warring States Period, one acre of land could produce one and a half dan of millet in an ordinary year, which is equivalent to nine dou per acre today. According to the "Historical Records: River Canal Book": Any land irrigated by Zheng Guo canal water can harvest one bell per acre. One bell is six stones and four buckets, which translates to a current yield of three stones, eight buckets and four liters per mu. Under the production conditions of the late Warring States period more than 2,000 years ago, the output was indeed very high.
Dujiangyan
Li Bing was appointed as the governor of Shu County by King Zhao of Qin from 256 BC to 251 BC. In the high mountains and deep valleys in the upper reaches of the Minjiang River, the water flows rapidly. Once it reaches the Chengdu Plain, the flow speed suddenly slows down, and the entrained silt, sand and gravel are immediately deposited, blocking the river channel.
Every summer and autumn, water levels rise sharply, often causing flooding below Guanxian County (in present-day Sichuan). After the rainy season, there will be drought again. In order to irrigate farmland and turn water hazards into water conservancy, Li Bing summarized the experience of previous water control, took advantage of the situation, relied on the local people, and built the Dujiangyan Water Conservancy Project in Dujiangyan City, where the Minjiang River flows out of the mountains and into the plains.
Dujiangyan Water Conservancy Project consists of two major systems: head canal and channel. The headwater project includes three main parts: Dujiang Yuzui, Feishayan and Baopingkou. Dujiang Yuzui is a water diversion construction project built in the middle of the Minjiang River. It divides the water of the Minjiang River into two parts. The east side is called the Neijiang River, which supplies water for irrigation canals, and the west side is called the Outer River, which is the main stream of the Minjiang River. On the south bank of the Minjiang River near the city of Dujiangyan, the foot of Yulei Mountain was dug out to form a separated pile of stones, namely Lidui, and a narrow water inlet, namely Baopingkou. The water from the Neijiang River flows through the mouth of Baoping into a channel system as dense as a spider web. "Bucket gates" are installed at both large and small water inlets. When water is needed, the bucket gates can be opened and when there is a lot of water, the bucket gates can be closed. "Drought will lead to water infiltration, and rain will block the water gate" ("Huayang Guozhi·Shu Zhi"). In summer, when the water in the Minjiang River rises, the fish mouth of the Dujiang River is submerged, and Lidui becomes the second water diversion point. The Feisha Weir was built immediately between the Inner Jingang Dyke and Lidui to regulate the water volume of the Inner River. When the flood surges, the water from the Inner River can overflow the Feisha Weir and flow into the Outer River, ensuring the safety of the Inner River irrigation system. The Dujiangyan Water Conservancy Project is a comprehensive water conservancy project that mainly focuses on irrigation but also has flood control and transportation functions. It not only relieves the flooding of the Min River, but also facilitates shipping. It irrigates more than 3 million acres of farmland, making the Chengdu Plain a place where floods and droughts are controlled by people. , "I don't know the famine", "the land of abundance" with guaranteed harvests due to droughts and floods ("Huayang Guozhi·Shu Zhi"). Dujiangyan's location was appropriately chosen, the project layout was reasonable, the supporting facilities were tight and complete, local materials were used for the construction, and the entire system was irrigated by gravity. It saves effort and brings great benefits. It has been benefiting the people for more than 2,200 years. Dujiangyan has a total of more than 520 branch canals with a total length of more than 1,100 kilometers. Before liberation, the project was in disrepair and the irrigation area was reduced to more than 2 million acres. After liberation, great efforts were made to renovate and expand the area, and now the irrigation area has been expanded to more than 8 million acres. It is not only a pearl in the history of water conservancy in China, but also occupies an important position in the history of water conservancy in the world.
The development of handicraft industry
Before the Spring and Autumn Period, industry and commerce were mainly run by the government, the labor force was slaves, and there were very few private industry and commerce. After the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period, with the gradual establishment of private ownership of land and the emergence of feudal production relations, the industrial and commercial sectors gradually left the support of the official family and developed in the direction of private management. Private handicrafts and independent individual craftsmen, which mainly produced goods, emerged. . They usually engage in production in their own homes, and some set up workshops and shops in urban markets. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Gongshu Pan (Ban), who was famous for his skills, was such an independent craftsman. Later he was regarded as the ancestor of craftsmen. At the same time, officials and merchants could no longer monopolize trade, and private merchants became increasingly powerful. For example, Xian Gao, a great businessman of the Zheng State, heard that the Qin army had attacked the Zheng State while he was selling cattle. He did not have time to report back, so he claimed to be an envoy sent by the Zheng State and offered 12 cows and 4 pieces of leather to reward the Qin army. . Because of his adaptability, he corrected the emperor's order and rewarded the Qin army, which made the Qin army mistakenly believe that Zheng Guo had learned about Qin's military operations and was prepared, so he canceled the sneak attack. In addition, Fan Li, a Yue official, and Zigong, a disciple of Confucius, were both famous and wealthy businessmen. Confucius traveled around the world largely because of Zigong's financial help. From the development of industry and commerce and the changes in the status of industrial and commercial workers, it can be seen that the control and shackles of slavery are gradually getting rid of in the field of industry and commerce, and new factors in feudal relations are also growing day by day.
The iron smelting industry was the most important handicraft sector at that time. Due to years of experience, people already have preliminary mining knowledge. "Guan Zi Di Shu" says: "If there is red sand on the top, there is gold on the bottom; if there is magnet on the top, there will be copper and gold on the bottom; if there is mausoleum on the top, there will be lead, tin and red copper on the bottom; if there is ocher on the top, there will be iron on the bottom." "The "Book of Mountains and Seas·Wuzangshan Jing" written in the Warring States Period records that there are more than 30 iron mines with specific locations. The "Book of Mountains and Seas" Zhongshan Jing and "Several Chapters of Guanzi Di" count "three thousand six hundred and ninety-nine mountains of iron". This number is exaggerated, but there must have been many iron mines discovered at this time. Judging from the Warring States copper mine ruins discovered in Tonglu Mountain in Daye, Hubei today, the shaft is more than fifty meters deep and was used as a traffic tunnel. Tunnels are developed along the horizontal direction for the purpose of mining ore. Open tunnels from the bottom of the ore layer by layer from bottom to top, conduct preliminary sorting underground, and fill the waste tunnels with poor ore, gravel and soil to ensure that most of the rich ores are lifted out.
These show that mining technology has been quite advanced during the Warring States Period, and a series of complex technical problems such as underground ventilation, drainage, transportation, lifting, lighting and tunnel support have been initially solved.
What marked the breakthrough economic development in the Spring and Autumn Period was the invention of pig iron smelting technology. The progress of iron smelting technology mainly lies in improving the furnace and raising the furnace temperature, which requires expanding and improving the blast equipment. "Wu Yue Chun Qiu" says that when King Helu of Wu forged the two swords of "Qian Jiang" and "Mo Xie", he used "three hundred boys and girls to pack charcoal on drums and ladles", and then "the gold and iron were wetted and turned into swords." This shows that there were many gongs used in the furnaces at that time. During the Warring States Period, iron-making furnaces used rows of ladles to blow air. Large-scale smelting plants have hundreds of craftsmen. Archaeologists have discovered six iron-smelting workshops in the ancient city of Linzi, the largest of which covers an area of ??more than 400,000 square meters. Yanxiadu in the Yan State was also an important iron smelting site. Three iron smelting workshops were found in its ruins, with a total area of ??300,000 square meters. There are iron smelting centers in various countries, the most famous of which is Wan in Chu State. The so-called "Wan's huge (steel) iron (shī) is as miserable as bees (chài, poisonous insects such as scorpions)", which shows that the weapons produced in Wan are of very high quality. High. Handan in the State of Zhao was an important place for the iron smelting handicraft industry. Not only did Guo Zong, a native of Handan, make his fortune from iron smelting, but he was also a rich prince. It was the Zhuo family who ran the iron smelting handicraft industry in the early Western Han Dynasty. His ancestors were also from Zhao and became rich from iron smelting. .
Cast iron tools were widely used during the Warring States Period, but early cast iron was hard and brittle white iron, which was easy to break. At that time, the working people created in production practice the high-temperature annealing of cast iron parts to turn them into malleable cast iron with both relatively high hardness and relatively good toughness. Depending on the heat treatment conditions, those mainly decarburized will become white heart malleable iron; those mainly graphitized will become black heart malleable iron. After the middle period of the Warring States Period, iron tools were widely used, and the invention and development of malleable iron played an important role. Foreign white heart malleable iron was first invented by the French in 1722. Black-core malleable iron was invented by Americans in 1826. For a long time thereafter, people called white-heart malleable cast iron "European-style malleable iron" and black-heart malleable iron "American-style malleable iron." In fact, our country invented malleable iron more than 2,000 years earlier than they did.
During the Spring and Autumn Period, the sea salt cooking industry in Qi State and the salt cooking industry in Hedongchi of Jin State both flourished. Hadong salt is regarded as a "national treasure". During the Warring States Period, the sea salt cooking industry in Qi and Yan became more developed, with large sea salt production and wide circulation. At the same time, Li Bing was appointed as the governor of Shu County and the development of well salt in Sichuan had begun.
Textile industry. At that time, sericulture was common in rural areas in the Yellow River Basin and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and silk fabrics were produced. Among them, the silk fabrics produced in Qilu and other countries are relatively exquisite. The textile technology of Nühong (worker) in Qi State is extremely famous, and the silk fabrics produced are widely marketed, so-called "crowns, belts, clothes and shoes all over the world" ("Shi Ji Huo Shi Biography"). At that time, various vassal states often used silk fabrics as prizes, with as many as 5,000 pieces at one time. Linen fabrics were more common than silk fabrics and were the main clothing material for the working people and the main commodity at that time. The linen fragments unearthed in Changsha are denser than ordinary cotton today (linen has 280 warp threads per 10 cm and 240 weft threads per 10 cm. Today's leading muslin cotton has 254 warp threads and 248 weft threads per 10 cm), indicating the advancement of linen weaving technology at that time. superb.
Lacquerware craftsmanship was also attached to the woodware industry in the Spring and Autumn Period. After the middle period of the Warring States Period, it rapidly developed into an independent handicraft sector. In the early Warring States period, the wooden base of lacquerware was still very thick, and colored lacquer was often applied to the finely carved woodware. After the middle period of the Warring States Period, wooden bodies became lighter and lighter, and the paint colors were more than ten kinds, including black, vermilion, yellow, purple, white, green, etc. Various images and patterns were often painted on the utensils with various colors of paint. The edges of some daily lacquerware are also inlaid with gold or copper edges, which are so-called gold and copper buttons. This all shows the progress of lacquerware technology.
This is already a lot, take your time and take a look
I hope there is an answer you want