Sacrificial ceremony
Sacrificing to the gods and praying for their blessing and victory is the most important etiquette of the ancient army. This solemn etiquette is also used to enhance the soldiers' belief in winning.
Confucian classics say that in the Western Zhou Dynasty, whenever troops were sent, a large-scale sacrificial ceremony was held to slaughter cattle and sheep to sacrifice their ancestors and the country (land and valley gods). All the soldiers who participated in the war lined up, and the slaughtered cattle and sheep turned around in the queue, numbered "martyrdom" and announced that "all those who don't need to die will be beheaded". The Commander-in-Chief personally soaked the blood of sacrifice in weapons, symbolically soaked flags, drums, Jin Duo and weapons used in combat with a little blood of sacrifice in the name of "trouble". Strangely, the chariot soaked with animal blood was put back into the library for preservation. After the sacrifice, the cattle and sheep were cooked, that is, "meat", and distributed to the soldiers.
According to the records in Zuo Zhuan, this tradition was still reserved in the Spring and Autumn Period. Moreover, we can know that at that time, enemy prisoners were often killed on the spot as sacrifices, and their blood was soaked in war drums, nicknamed "the drum of trouble."
For example, in 627 BC, the whole army was wiped out in the battle of Lushan Mountain, and three generals, Meng and others, were captured. Later, Jin released the three generals at the request of the monarch's wife, but they broke their word and sent troops to pursue them. Meng shouted from the boat, "Thank Jin Jun for his kindness. Don't bother us. Let's go back to China and accept the death penalty. Never die, come back in three years. "
In 537 BC, there was a war between Wu and Chu. The King of Wu sent his younger brother Chang You to join the army and was captured by the Chu army on the way. The king of Chu wanted to "beat the drums" and sent someone to ask him ridiculously, "Did you get lucky divination when you came?" You replied, "I made a fortune." Knowing that the king might attack our country, the monarch of our country asked Bu:' Send someone to kill the army, make preparations in advance, and investigate the situation.' This result is a good sign. Now that the king wants to trouble me, our country knows to be on guard. Isn't that great? "The king of Chu has never tasted it, and there is no reason to kill him.
In the Han Dynasty, every autumn after the worship ceremony began, the emperor personally drove a car pulled by a white horse with red mane to shoot an elk on the road outside the East Gate, and the worshippers drove the elk to the ancestral temple for sacrifice. The emperor gave a bundle of silks to the military attache, who presided over a large-scale meeting and practiced the sixty-four arrays of Sun Wu's Art of War. The emperor led hundreds of officials to watch it. When the general was appointed for war, Fu Jielang awarded the general "Jie" and "Yue" on behalf of the emperor. In the Western Jin Dynasty, the emperor was present in person, and the ministers awarded the General's Day and Yue. The above ceremony will still be held when going out.
These rituals have been followed for a long time. The Northern Dynasty was slightly modified, and the Northern Qi Dynasty added sacrificial gods in the expedition ceremony, including the directions and mountain gods that Houtu, Shenzhou, Yue Zhen, Haidu and Yuanchuan will pass through. In addition, a ceremony of sacrificing military flags was held separately to celebrate auspicious days, and military flags were sacrificed to the Thai supervisor (all cows, sheep and pigs). When we arrive at the battlefield, we will hold a ceremony to worship the local land gods, prepare black sacrifices, line up, set up an altar on the altar, pile firewood, slaughter sacrifices, and the band will play the song "Dabao". After the ceremony, remove the sacrifice and light the firewood. On the day before the war, a ceremony was held to pray for the ancestors and the land. If you win, you will get a reward, sacrifice to the prison and reward the soldiers with your life. And execute those who don't want to die on the social altar.
The etiquette of the Northern Qi Dynasty was later followed by the Tang and Song Dynasties. The leading flag of the army is called "Tooth Flag", and teachers must offer sacrifices. Sacrificial ceremonies are also called "horses" and have special "utensils". An altar must be built in the barracks, surrounded by green ropes, covered with curtains, and decorated with tablets of military teeth and flags. Sacrifice requires a full set of sacrifices, and the sacrifice is too firm. If there are no cows, sheep and pigs can replace them. The Commander-in-Chief died in full military uniform, accompanied by the school. The blood of slaughtered animals still needs to be "drummed".
In the Ming Dynasty, flag temples were specially established in the capital and local health centers for daily sacrifices. Every Mid-Autumn Festival, when the emperor sacrifices mountains and rivers, he also goes to the "flag temple" in Beijing. The sacrificial gods were also expanded into "General with Flag Head", "General with Six Commandments", "God with Five Flags", "God with Command of Warships", "God with Guns in Golden Drum Horn", "God with Flying Guns and Flying Stones" and "God with Five Prosperities before and after", with a total of seven gods. A temple was built behind the local police station, and the commander was the main sacrificial official. Before the war, there was a ceremony. In the Ming dynasty, the ceremony of seeing off the general was resumed. The emperor wore a military uniform and served in Fengtian Hall. The general entered Danyong Temple, made four obeisances, entered the temple from the west, and knelt down again. Accept the official announcement system and award the generals with festivals and lots. The general went outside the noon gate, summoned soldiers, raised flags, sounded golden drums, and marched in procession to celebrate the festival. Play the music first, and then the officials will send it.
Meeting ceremony
In ancient China, the main etiquette was to bow. Until the Tang Dynasty, people in China used to sit on the floor. The ancient people's "sitting" is actually what we are doing now, kneeling on the ground, and then sitting on the heel with the feet facing back. When you want to show respect, straighten your upper body. This is called "pulling yourself up". Further respect etiquette is to lean forward and hold the ground with both hands, which is "worship". On formal occasions, there are kowtows, nods and short positions. Kowtow means that the worshipper kneels, presses his left hand on his right hand, supports himself on the ground, then kowtows on his knees, misses for a while, puts his hands in front of his knees and puts his head behind his hands. This is the most important etiquette, generally used for courtiers to greet the king or children to sacrifice their ancestors. The basic action of nodding is the same as that of kowtowing, except that kowtowing is faster and the forehead touches the ground. Generally used to salute from bottom to top. The basic movements of short-hand technique are to land on your knees, arch your chest with your hands, bow your head and reach out, and your head will not touch the ground calmly. Also known as "hand worship". This etiquette has become a habit in the future. Even after the Song Dynasty, people widely used chairs and stools to "sit with their feet down", but they still kept the ceremony of bowing down.
In ancient times, people of the same generation and status could bow back. Looking at each other with your hands crossed on your chest is generally called "bowing", while those who make "promises" are called "singing promises". During the Western Zhou Dynasty and the Spring and Autumn Period, when the nobles traveled and drove, they saw that someone with higher status had to give way, and the other person had to put his hand on the crossbar in front of the car. This was called "style".
According to the records in Confucian classics, these ordinary ceremonies were not allowed in the military camps of the Western Zhou Dynasty. For example, all soldiers wearing armor can't bow down, but only bow and raise their hands to people taller than themselves, numbered "middle officials don't bow down"; And those who are respected only need to bow their backs. Even if someone salutes the coachman, there is no need to return the gift, and the number is "No chariot". When sending and receiving weapons with sharp edges in the barracks, submit one end of the wooden handle. When leaving the barracks, the blade of the weapon should be forward, and when entering the barracks, the blade should be backward.
After the Han Dynasty, these military etiquette still existed. For example, in the famous story of Emperor Wendi, Zhou Yafu refused to bow down on the grounds of "Military". However, soldiers without armor still have to bow their heads.
In the future, the military camp meeting ceremony will combine the bow ceremony with the bow. Qi Jiguang, for example, stipulates that middle-and lower-level soldiers in military camps must "bow down" when they meet generals and "bow down" when they meet indirect subordinates. Lu Yu's boss, to dismount to make way, bowed their heads and meet the road. If you are an indirect superior officer, you still have to dismount and stand at attention. Seeing that money is always "two hands and one knee", the same is true at all levels below. When the superior gives orders, the subordinate must kneel. He also declared that "the army is neutral and grass is the standard" and must salute the superior. These military ceremonies were later used by the Qing Dynasty.
"The 12 rounds of this policy will be awarded to the former 100."
The factors that motivate soldiers to risk their lives to participate in combat mainly include practical benefits (upgrading social class and obtaining material benefits, etc.). ) and spiritual stimulation (highly praised and respected by society). The legalist work "The Book of Shang Jun" shows this point incisively and vividly. It advocates "one religion" and requires the state to focus all interests and public opinion evaluation on the war: "the door of wealth must come from soldiers"; "The dead don't regret, the living advise"; Songs of daily life, such as diet, should be related to war; To be "happy when you hear the war", you should even be "hungry when you see the war".
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the original social status restrictions were broken, and slaves and civilians could improve their social status through meritorious military service on the battlefield. This is a great incentive mechanism for civilian soldiers participating in the war. For example, in 493 BC, Zhao Yang, the minister of the State of Jin, led his own private army to fight against the Qi army in Chao Ge. When mobilizing before the war, Zhao Yang announced that if he won the battle, the upper doctors could get the tax of a county, the lower doctors could get the tax of a county (at that time, the county referred to the border, which was smaller than the county), and the scholars could get the land. Civilians, businessmen and businessmen can be officials, and slaves can be free. The result was a total victory.
It was Shang Yang's political reform of Qin that brought this policy into full play. This political reform turned the number 20 of Qin into a complete bugle system. Anyone with any status can be promoted to the first level as long as he has the meritorious military service and won the head of the other army on the battlefield. Social status and economic benefits stipulated by the state are awarded according to professional titles.
Titles are divided into 20 grades from low to high: equivalent to the titles of scholars in the past, they are divided into four grades, namely, male scholar, superior, bird-praising and cloth Geng; The titles corresponding to the former "doctor" are divided into five grades, namely "doctor", "official doctor", "public doctor", "public riding" and "five doctors"; In the past, the title equivalent to Qing was divided into nine grades, namely, left rank, right rank, left rank, middle rank, right rank, less excellent, great excellent (or great excellent), excellent rank and excellent rank. The titles equivalent to the titles of governors in previous dynasties are divided into two grades: "Hou in Guannei" and "Hou in Chechu".
For each promotion to the first rank of title, the state grants 100 mu of cultivated land and 9 mu of homestead, and the state grants 1 "hybrid", which cultivates the land for the owner in peacetime and provides services for the owner in wartime. More than five doctors can get a certain number of "tax cities" (the tax paid by residents in some places is designated for them to enjoy), and Chehou and Guanneihou can also get fiefs and get the tax of fiefs (but generally they can't rule directly in fiefs). Every title can enjoy corresponding social privileges. For example, "step farming" can exempt ordinary people from the labor they have to bear, and "public riding" has the privilege of taking government vehicles when traveling. Every aspect of daily life, such as food, clothing, housing, transportation, birth, marriage, funeral, sacrifice and so on, is strictly divided according to titles. People with titles can also serve as officials at a certain level, for example, doctors at or above level 5 can serve as officials at all levels. In the case of crime, people with titles can often use "demotion" instead of punishment. Titles can also be used to exempt their relatives from government slavery, and first-class titles can redeem the freedom of relatives who have become slaves.
Qin's Samurai Law made detailed provisions on the calculation and reward of meritorious military service. For example, asking soldiers to behead ordinary enemy soldiers on the battlefield can exempt the whole family from corvee and taxes. If a combat formation unit with less than 100 people can cut off the heads of 33 enemies, it will be counted as "full merit", and the leading officer can be promoted to one level. A large corps beheaded more than 8,000 in the siege war and more than 2,000 in the field, which is also considered "full merit". Officers at all levels are promoted to the first level, and those with outstanding achievements can be promoted to the third level.
Judging from the almost invincible situation in Qin Jun at the end of the Warring States Period, this incentive mechanism is quite effective. By the end of Qin dynasty, all parties basically adopted this system. Liu Bang's Han army awarded a large number of military titles in the war, but the social evaluation and actual treatment of these people with titles were greatly reduced, so that Liu Bang specially issued a proclamation after the war, asking local governments to respect the retired officers and men with titles.
His son, Liu Heng, accepted the suggestion of Jia Yi, a civil servant, and allowed people to pay for officials to increase government revenue. Later, many emperors went further, often for some political purpose, announcing that they would "make the world a civilian rank" or even make it a second-class or third-class rank, so there is no necessary connection between title and military service.
There is no similar universal appellation system in later generations.
In order to promote the war against Xiongnu, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty designed a set of 17 "martial arts titles", nominally to reward brave soldiers, which can actually be sold as much as the original titles. At present, we only know that from low to high, there are names such as "Scholar", "Idle Scholar", "Good Scholar", "Yuan Rongshi", "Official Head", "Warrior", "Qian Fu", "Rong Zhi", "Zuo Shu Chief" and "Military Guard".
After the Qin and Han dynasties, because the society valued official positions, there was no incentive to reward titles. Therefore, the Northern Zhou Dynasty set up a system of "respecting officials" to grant a nominal official position to soldiers who have made meritorious deeds. Sui, Tang, Five Dynasties and Song Dynasties all followed this system. There are 65,438+065,438+0 grades in the Northern Zhou Dynasty, such as "Shanghai Yikaitong No.3 Division", "Shanghai Yitong No.3 Division" and "Yitong No.3 Division". Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty changed to Shang Zhu Guo, Zhu Guo, Shang General, Shang Kaifu Yitong No.3 Division, Shang Yitong No.3 Division, Yi Yitong No.3 Division, Da Dudu, Shuai Dudu and Du Du 65438+
But the name of the hero is similar to the actual official position, which is easy to be confused. So the emperor changed Dr. Zuo Guanglu, Dr. You Guanglu, Dr. Jin Guanglu, Dr. Yin Lu, Dr. Zheng Yi, Dr. Chao Please, Dr. Chao San, Jianjie Fen Wuwei, Xuan, Sui, Huai Renwei, Shou Yiwei, Feng and Li, and the second grade started from the ninth grade.
In the Tang Dynasty, Shang Guzhuo, Zhu Guo, Shangguan (later changed to Guard the Army), Daguan (Guard the Army), Shangqing Dewey, Shangqing Dewey, Shang Qi Dewey, Xiaoqi Dewey, Qi Fei Duwei, Yunqi Duwei and Wuqi Duwei were established. With the second grade to the seventh grade.
This appeared in the Five Dynasties and the Song Dynasty, but it has little practical significance.
The Yuan Dynasty had the same system when it entered the Central Plains. Ranks of 65,438+00 are: Shangzhou, Zhuguozhou, Shangbaojun, Baojun, Shangqing Dewey, Shang Qi Dewey, Riding Dewey, Xiaoqi Dewey and Qi Fei Duwei, all of which are first to fifth.
In the Ming Dynasty, the system of the Tang and Song Dynasties was restored, with a slightly different name: 12: Zuozhuguo, Youzhuguo, Zhu Guo, Shangbaojun, Shanggu Army, Shanggu Duwei, Shanggu Duwei, Equestrian Dewey, Xiaoqi Dewey, Feiqiwei, Yun Qi Wei and Wuqi Dewey, all in grades one to six.
As a means of rewarding military achievements, honorary officers have little incentive effect in the future, because honorary officers have no actual treatment. Whenever the war is tight, the imperial court often seals the career officials (official positions with actual power) directly to those who have made meritorious deeds. After the Anshi Rebellion broke out in the Tang Dynasty, there were not only meritorious officials, but also professional officials' indiscriminate confessions. The official department and the Ministry of War specially appointed 9 1 "confession officers" to write "confessions" day and night, and issued 65,438+10,000 confessions every year. Even so, it failed to effectively improve the morale of loyalists.
After taking this charge, you can only put on airs according to this level, and there is no national salary to take, because the salary in ancient China was paid in strict accordance with the "post" (official vacancy). If you want to be an official, you have to spend your own money to wait in line in Beijing for several years, which is beyond the affordability of ordinary people.
In the early Southern Song Dynasty, the imperial court could only give officers and men official photos as a reward, and thousands of official photos were issued. So that some teams in the army were named "Kung Fu Team" at that time, and the soldiers in the team were at least "Kung Fu Lang" (seventh-level military attache) and "Doctor of Kung Fu" (seventh-level military attache).
When the Qing dynasty entered the customs, there was no longer an official reward system, but a "merit card" was issued directly. Similar to today's awards, it is still graded according to the official rank, from below level 5. With several grades of merit cards, you can generally play several grades of official music and take an official sedan chair carried by eight people. When you travel, you can clear the way according to the grades, but you must pay your own expenses. The country only gives you a piece of paper to play music with.
Another way to reward is to award official positions directly, such as "supplementing the company commander before joining the army". After each battle, leading generals can "recommend" their subordinates to be officials. At first, the proportion did not exceed 5% of all soldiers, and then gradually increased, sometimes reaching 15% or even 30% during the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom War. Zeng Guofan tried to limit the recommendation ratio of Xiang Army to below 14%, but it was often broken.
In fact, there are not so many vacancies in the court. Those who get the official position should report to the Ministry of War at their own expense and wait for the actual vacancy. When the scale of the war is large and thousands of officers are awarded, it is difficult for the alternate officers to wait for a long time to fill the vacancy and finally have no money to go home. For example, during the suppression of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom War in the late Qing Dynasty, hundreds of thousands of soldiers of the Xiang Army and the Huai Army received various titles of military attache, but the number of military attaché s in the imperial court was fixed at around 13000. Many retired soldiers have neither the travelling expenses to Beijing to participate in the civil service election nor the academic qualifications. Knowing that they can't make up for the real vacancy, they have to sell them with "official photos".
Rewarding military achievements by improving social status has limited effect and needs other incentives. In "Hua Mulan Ci", it is said that Hua Mulan has repeatedly made meritorious military service, and "twelve turns to top 100 meritorious military service". Since 12 is of little significance, we should mainly look at 100 (strong, that is, "cymbals" and copper coins). It seems that in the Northern Dynasties, soldiers were rewarded with gold.
Later, this method was greatly developed in the Song Dynasty when the mercenary system was implemented. In Song Dynasty, there was a special law, which was clearly marked. Imperial army: first class, silk 10 horse, money 10 penetration; Second class, 7 silks and 8 coins; Third class, 5 silks and 5 coins; Fourth class, 3 silks and 3 coins; The fifth category, silk 1, money 3 penetration. Fan Bingbing, Volunteer and Archer: Level 1, silk10; Second class, 8 silks; Third, money 10 penetration; Fourth, money 5 penetration; Fifth, the money is 3. In general, the first level of the enemy in the battlefield is the fourth level, and so on. Senior officers (deputy commanders or above) are slightly injured and rewarded with 5 silks; Seriously injured, reward 7 silks. Grass-roots officers (above the deputy commander) were seriously injured in 5 horses and slightly injured in 3 horses. The "long line" soldiers were seriously injured in 3 horses and slightly injured in 2 horses.
The method of clearly marking the price in Song Dynasty was also very popular in later generations. For example, green camp people in the Qing Dynasty also divided the meritorious military service into three categories: first-class silver award of 5 taels, second-class silver award of 3 taels, and third-class silver award of 1 taels. Special class meritorious service will be rewarded according to the specific situation. For example, when attacking the city, the first person to board the city head and rush into the city will be rewarded with 250 taels of silver; The first person to break through the enemy lines in the field will be rewarded with 50 taels of silver; Whoever wins the enemy ship will be rewarded with 100 silver; And so on. Ordinary soldiers were killed, with 50 taels of infantry, 70 taels of cavalry and 20 taels of miscellaneous soldiers; The number of officers killed in the battle decreased from 800 taels in the prefect to 100 taels in the total number. War injury rewards range from 50 taels to 30 taels. Later, the Xiang Army and the Huai Army made some modifications according to this system to form a set of meritorious military service awards.