The first is the relationship between teaching and learning. In Chinese characters, "teaching" and "learning" are cognates, which are two closely related aspects of the same thing. Shuowen: "Teaching, from the top, from the bottom." It can be seen that teaching refers to the activities of both teachers and students. From "teaching" came another word "Yi", which said, "Yi, wake up and teach." After the Qin Dynasty, I began to write. The so-called "consciousness" means "what is given above is effective below". In today's words, teaching and learning are dialectical relations of unity of opposites. Therefore, while teaching, we should consider all aspects of learning. Teachers can't just look at the handouts themselves, not at whether the students are "conscious".
It should be said that in dealing with the relationship between teaching and learning, Confucius fully embodies the idea of teaching as one. He is fully aware of the learning and acceptance of his teaching object. For example, he lectured with Yan Hui all day, and Yan Hui never raised any objections or questions, just like a fool. But Confucius knew that Yan Hui's "retiring to save his private interests is enough to make a fortune, but retiring is not stupid". [1] Confucius also knew that disciples had different understandings. "You can know ten when you return, and two when you give." [2] And Yan Hui is the only one who can listen to him persistently. [3] "Going home in March is not against benevolence", [4] As for other students, Ren just thought of it by accident. Of course, once a student "awakens", Confucius can always be aware of it. For example, when Zigong "told it to people he knew in the past," Confucius said happily, "Give it, and then you can tell poetry!" [5] Zi Gong linked the appearance of rites and music with the description of beautiful women in The Book of Songs Feng Wei Shuo Ren. Confucius also said excitedly: "All those who give are businessmen! I can only say Poetry. " 〔6〕
Confucius knew the temperament and daily life of students like the back of his hand. No matter which disciple you ask, you can blurt it out. For example, Ji Kangzi tested him on Zhong You, Duanmu Ci and Ran Qiu. Without thinking, he said, "You Guo Ye", "Give it to Ye Da" and "Find Ye Yi". [7] Resolute, Zi Gong is reasonable, and Ran is versatile. He also said, "Chai is also stupid, a teacher and a teacher." [8] refers to Gao Chai's stupidity, Zeng Shen's dullness, Zhuan Xu's extreme attitude towards rocks, and Zhong You's recklessness, which shows his understanding of the habits of his disciples. Confucius knew nothing about students' extracurricular life. He not only knew that Yan Hui "had a quick meal and a ladle of water, but in a mean alley, people were too anxious to go back and not change their love", [9] and he also knew that Zigong was restless, hoarding speculation, guessing the market, and making a windfall. The so-called "If you don't give orders, Huo Zhi doesn't give orders, and hundreds of millions repeat it". [10] Confucius took good care of some students in adversity. Disciple Gong Yechang was unjustly imprisoned. Confucius thought it was "not his crime", [1 1], and married his daughter to him. Ran Boniu was terminally ill, and Confucius went to visit him himself. Before he could enter the house, he took the student's hand outside the window and said, "Sri Lankans have their own diseases!" " "[12] sighed repeatedly. When Yan Yuan died, Confucius said sadly, "God wants my life! God wants my life! "Others advised him not to be sad, and he said," I don't feel sad for such people, so why should people feel sad! " " 〔 13〕
It is precisely because Confucius not only teaches, but also teaches people, and teaching and learning are integrated, so not only the relationship between teachers and students is harmonious, but also the teaching quality is very high. "There are seven people who are proficient in business, all of whom are capable people." [14] has made outstanding contributions to the spread of China culture.
The second is the relationship between "teaching without distinction" and teaching students in accordance with their aptitude. In today's words, it is the relationship between universal education and targeted education.
First of all, Confucius advocated universal education, and he clearly put forward that "education has no class", [15] that is, everyone can receive education, regardless of age, wealth or region. Among Confucius' disciples are Qin Shang and Yan You, four years younger than the master, Gong Sunlong (Zi Shi), 53 years younger than the master, and Shu Zhonghui (Zi Yue), 54 years younger than the master. The age gap between students is 50 years old. There are even people whose father and son are listed under Confucius, such as Yan You, Yan Hui and his son, Zeng, Zeng Shen, etc., who have become students of Confucius. Geographically speaking, Confucius' students are not only Qi and Lu, but also Song, Wei, Chen, Cai, Qin, Chu, Wu and Yue, almost all over the country. In this case, Bian (Wei) people, Zi Gong, Gao Chai are wei ren, Sima Geng is a Song person, Zhuan Xu Shi () is a Chen person, Wu person, Qin Zu is a person, Gong Sunlong (when he was a child) is a Chu person, and Qi Tiaokai is a Cai person. Moreover, the students' family background and economic situation are also different, including Meng, the son of the doctor, Milan, the son of General Wei, and Zhong Gong, who was born as a "bitch". Zi Gong, who is rich, lives in Gongxichi, a fat horse and clothes, Yuan Xian, who lives in mean streets, and Gong Yechang, who is in prison. In terms of appearance, some of them look like Confucius, and some of them are less than five feet long and ugly. Confucius treated all this equally and accepted it as a disciple.
Secondly, after the disciples entered the room, Confucius could carry out targeted education according to their different characteristics, that is, teach students in accordance with their aptitude. Confucius admitted that people's nature is different, so his teaching in accordance with their aptitude should first look at people's qualifications and cultural level, that is, the so-called "above people, you can also speak;" Under China people, you can't speak orally. "[16] means that people above the average level can tell them profound knowledge; Those below average can't tell him profound knowledge. Although some disciples were very clever, Confucius didn't begin to teach them relevant knowledge until they became "conscious" in some aspects. For example, Confucius taught Zi Gong and Xia Zi's The Book of Songs. As for daily teaching, it is highly targeted. If the same question is "benevolence", Confucius has different answers to different disciples. Yan Yuan asked about benevolence, and Confucius said that "self-denial is benevolence";
[17] Zhonggong Wenren, Confucius said: "Don't do to others what you don't want others to do to you"; [18] Sima Niu begged for benevolence, and Confucius said, "A benevolent person is guilty of what he said"; [19] Asked Ren, Confucius said, "Respect for life, respect for deacons, loyalty to people"; [20] Zi Gong asked about benevolence, and Confucius said, "A wise man is to his doctor, and a benevolent man is to his friend"; [2 1] Zhang Ziwen Ren, Confucius said that "the five things that can be done (courtesy, tolerance, faith, sensitivity and benefit) are the benevolence in the world". [22] Why are there such different answers? Mainly for everyone's different characteristics. When Yan Yuan and Zhong Gong were virtuous, Confucius answered positively. Sima Geng (Buff) is "talkative and impetuous", and Confucius [23] told him to speak slowly (that is, slowly); Fan Chi wanted to learn from crops, but Confucius didn't agree, so he paid attention to courtesy, righteousness and faith. Zi Gong likes to talk about people. He said, "You can't cover up people's mistakes by praising their beauty." [24] Confucius asked him to learn from the wise men and strengthen his cultivation. Zhang Zi wanted Wenda to do something, so Confucius asked him to cultivate five moral qualities that can be used in the world. The master's heart is deep!
It is precisely because Confucius taught all students in accordance with their aptitude that he not only had 3,000 disciples, but also trained a large number of outstanding talents with expertise. Such as Yan Yuan, Min Ziqian, Ran Boniu, Zhong Gong and other good virtues, Zai Ming, Zi Gong and other good words and deeds, You Ran, Lutz and other good political affairs, Zi You, Xia Zi and other familiar with ancient documents. [25] These talents are both Confucius' lofty ideals and China's cultural elite.
The third is the relationship between learning and thinking. In this regard, Confucius put forward a famous argument, that is, "learning without thinking is useless, thinking without learning is dangerous", [26] which means reading without thinking is useless, and dreaming without reading is dangerous. In Confucius' view, both learning and thinking should be taken into account, and it is difficult to achieve anything. It should be said that this is the most dialectical and correct understanding of the relationship between ancient and modern learning and thinking.
Let's talk about learning from Confucius to teach students six classics: poetry, calligraphy, Yi, Li, Chunqiu and Yue. To improve students' knowledge level and cultivate their comprehensive quality, we must read these documents. So Confucius encouraged students to read. For example, when he advised students to learn the Book of Songs, he said, "Why don't boys learn poetry? Poetry can be appreciated, observed, grouped and resented. Your father is far away, and you know the names of birds, animals and plants better. " [27] It means that reading the Book of Songs can cultivate people's association, improve their observation of things, exercise their social skills and learn the method of irony. Truth can serve parents and kings far away; But also know more about the names of birds, animals and plants. In the eyes of Confucius, The Book of Songs is simply an encyclopedia. Thousands of years later, the comprehensive study of The Book of Songs was initiated by Confucius. Other classics are also the most important classics in the pre-Qin period. As Xunzi said in "Encouraging Learning": "The respect for literature in" Li ",the harmony in" Yue ",the richness in" Poetry "and" Book "and the insignificance in" Spring and Autumn Annals "are all completed between heaven and earth." According to his own reading experience, Confucius also earnestly warned students to "establish people with poetry, establish people with courtesy, and achieve things with joy" [28], that is, to make people excited by learning poetry and establish themselves in society through courtesy.
Listening to music makes what you have learned complete. This is in line with what Bacon, a westerner, said: "Reading history makes people wise, reading poetry makes people witty, mathematics makes people careful, physics makes people profound, ethics makes people solemn, and logical rhetoric makes people fickle". [29] It can be said that reading is as wonderful as reading.
Think again. Confucius' "thinking" includes: first, students are required to think deeply about the cultural connotation of documents, not just superficial understanding; The second is to ask students to think about how to apply what they have learned in practice. For example, Confucius has discussed the Book of Songs with students many times and talked about his own understanding. He said, "The Book of Songs is 300. In a word, it says: the thought is innocent. " [30] He believes that the cultural spirit of The Book of Songs is pure thinking. He also clarified this view through the analysis of Guan Yu, the first article in the Book of Songs, saying: "Guan Yu is happy but not lewd, but sad but not hurt." [3 1] Under his inspiration. Disciples also talked about their own understanding of the relevant chapters in the Book of Songs, such as Zi Gong's "If it is as brilliant as a piece of paper, if it is as polished as a mill" ("Feng Weiqi's pride") [32], and Xia Zi's "If you smile and look forward to it, you always think it is gorgeous" ("Feng Wei says people") [33]. So is the study of Shangshu. When talking about the story of Yin Shouxiao living in a haunted house for three years, Confucius immediately led him to say, "Not only Yin did this, but the ancients also did this. The monarch died, and the king who succeeded him did not ask about political affairs for three years, and officials of various ministries obeyed the Prime Minister. " 〔34〕
Moreover, Confucius also asked students to try their best to turn book knowledge into practical work ability on the basis of understanding literature. This is also an important aspect of thinking. He warned his disciples: "recite 300 poems and teach them to be political, not to do it;" Make it everywhere, not just right; Although a lot, what do you think? " [35] It means that although he is familiar with 300 pieces of The Book of Songs, it is impossible to give him political tasks, and he cannot negotiate independently abroad. What's the use of such people even if they read more books?
In short, in Confucius' view, "it is better to study than to eat all day and not sleep all day." [36] If you only read and don't think, you will be led by the nose by the ancients, which is what Mencius said: "It is better to believe in books than to have no books." Therefore, only the combination of learning and thinking, thinking and learning, and learning and thinking is the only correct way to read.
The fourth is the relationship between reviewing the old and learning the new. Confucius said, "Reviewing the past and learning the new can be a teacher." [38] There are two meanings here: first, reviewing old lessons can help you understand new content, because learning always has a step-by-step process; Second, "reviewing the past and learning the new" also refers to mastering the existing knowledge and previous research results, while "learning the new" refers to new discoveries and new insights. Confucius believes that only by educating students to fully understand the basic knowledge and academic progress of a subject, in today's words, "entering the academic frontier", can they make discoveries and make innovations on this basis. Today, this is still a famous academic saying. Whoever violates it will be punished. Those who are eager to create new theories without a solid foundation, or their conclusions are like castles in the air, will be pushed down; Or repeat what others say, causing waste. In recent years, the problem of low-level repetition in academic research actually violates this teaching of Confucius.
Confucius himself set an example for future generations to "review the past and learn the new". For example, when Zhang Zi asked him if the ceremony after the 10th day was predictable, he said, "The etiquette system of the Yin Dynasty followed the etiquette system of the Xia Dynasty, and we can know what was abolished and added; The Zhou Dynasty followed the etiquette system of the Yin Dynasty, and we can know what was abolished and what was added. Then, assuming that the Zhou Dynasty has an heir, even the next hundred generations can know in advance. " [39] If you are familiar with the gains and losses of past dynasties, you can know the evolution of future etiquette, which is the concrete application of Confucius' method of "reviewing the past and learning the new" in the study of etiquette.
And how to "review the old and learn the new"? Confucius emphasized "learning from time to time", that is, [40] we should review and practice frequently, because some courses such as "ritual" (various rituals), "music" (music), "shooting" (archery) and "prevention" (driving) also need practice. Consolidating innovation in continuous review is the basic learning method taught by Confucius. In the words of Xia Zi, a disciple of Confucius, it is "I know that he will die in the future, but I will not forget his monthly ability", [4 1] is to know what he doesn't know every day and review what he can do every month.
The fifth is the relationship between teaching and answering questions. Confucius teaching is mainly in two forms: large class teaching and individual counseling and answering questions. Confucius always teaches students as much knowledge as possible in teaching, but he is easy to draw conclusions about what he has not understood yet, preferring to have doubts. This is the principle of "listening more and being suspicious" advocated by Confucius in teaching.
According to the Analects of Confucius, Confucius mainly taught students four contents: writing, conduct, loyalty and faith. His so-called "writing" is ancient literature, and his so-called "doing" is social practice including shooting, imperial and counting. In teaching, Confucius not only "teaches people tirelessly", but also has no reservations. He once said to his students, "Do you students think I'm hiding something? I have nothing to hide from you. I have nothing not to tell you. This is what I look like in Kong Qiu. " [43] He said so and did the same. Even though he "died in Cai Chen", he still thought of the students who were still in his hometown, eager to go back and give them lessons, and kept chanting: "Come back! Return to! The boys in our party are crazy, simple and talented. I don't know why he was cut. " 〔44〕
In counseling and answering questions, Confucius embodies the traditional teaching methods in China. "Book of Rites" said: "Be kind to the questioner, such as ringing a bell; Knocking small will make a small sound, and knocking big will make a big sound; Wait until it calms down and do your best. " Confucius is knocking at the door. Such examples can be found almost everywhere in The Analects of Confucius. For example, when Confucius arrived in Weiguo, You Ran drove for him. Confucius said as he walked, "What a dense population!" You Ran then asked, "The population is already large. What should we do?" Confucius said, "Let them be rich." You Ran asked again, "What should I do after I get rich? Confucius said, "Educate them." . "[45] With the escalation of the You Ran question, Confucius' answer became more and more profound. Another example is Zigong. How can I be called a "scholar"? Confucius said, "Shame on your behavior, make it extend in all directions, and do not disgrace your life. It can be described as a scholar. " Zi Gong asked about the second-class requirements. Confucius said, "Clans are called filial piety, and townships are called brothers." Zi Gong asked the second class, and Confucius said, "Words must be kept, and actions must bear fruit." Finally, when Zi Gong asked, "What are politicians today?" Confucius bluntly said his opinion: "Hey! There are not enough people fighting! " [46] It is true that the more questions are asked at the end, the more wonderful the answers will be.
Of course, Confucius would never be ignorant of problems that he had not studied. He strictly abides by the principle of "knowing is knowing, not knowing is not knowing". He said, "Some people don't pretend to understand. I don't have this problem. " [47] For example, when Fan Chi asked him about farming and vegetables, he said frankly, "I am not as good as an old farmer" and "I am not as good as an old nursery". [48] Another example is Wei Linggong's proposal on the method of military deployment. Confucius also replied bluntly: "Taste the beans; Things in the army are not learned. " 〔49〕
What is particularly commendable is that Confucius paid great attention to ways and means, and followed these ways and means in class and when answering questions, so that students could learn knowledge and profound truth in a relaxed and pleasant atmosphere. Such as Zilu, Zeng, Gong Xihua, Confucius first kindly inspired them to talk about their aspirations and ambitions, and then commented on them and put forward their own opinions. In this way, the disciples not only understood the teacher's wishes, but also understood the truth of being polite and modest to the country. Confucius disapproved of his conceit and rudeness, but out of love, he just smiled and let the students feel for themselves. 〔50〕
Sixth, the relationship between words and deeds and role models. Confucius emphasized both words and examples in teaching, and he combined them perfectly.
First of all, Confucius not only taught people with knowledge, but also with morality, which set a brilliant example for students in personality. Confucius said, "If a gentleman is not heavy, he is not strong and his knowledge is not solid." [5 1] He associated his solemn personality and dignified appearance with the consolidation of his studies. And how to be dignified and not fierce? Confucius said, "A gentleman wears clothes and respects his foresight, which seems to be daunting. Is it not awesome but not fierce? " [52] In the eyes of students, Confucius is indeed dignified, solemn and kind. The students said that he was "hard and soft, strong but not fierce, respectful and uneasy" [53] Xia Zi even said that Confucius had three changes: "Look at it, be warm, and listen strictly." 〔54〕
Secondly, in terms of scholarship, Confucius also set an example everywhere. He has no questions about meaning, necessity, reality and me, and [55] can always hear the good ones. Although he is knowledgeable, he still insists that "a threesome must have a teacher, choose the good one and follow it, and change the bad one." [56] into the ancestral temple, always "ask everything", [57] humbly ask for advice. He also asked Lao Zi for gifts, praised the official, sought pleasure from Changhong and learned piano from Shi Xiang. Until his old age, he still studied tirelessly. He didn't know that his old age was coming. "Reading Yi, Wei created three unique skills." [58] Confucius' studious spirit also deeply infected his students. We read in The Analects that all the disciples of Confucius get together to discuss knowledge, and some students who have left school come to Confucius for advice from time to time.
Third, Confucius has always maintained a close relationship with students, which is beneficial to both example and example. Students can "from each according to his ability" and put forward different opinions and even sharp criticisms on Confucius. If Confucius goes to see Wei Linggong's wife Nanzi, Lutz's dissatisfaction is beyond words, forcing Confucius to swear to heaven again and again: "If you refuse, God will hate!" Tired of it! [59] Confucius sometimes plays jokes on his students and makes fun of them. For example, once Confucius came to Wucheng, where Ziyou was the county magistrate, and heard the sound of string songs, he smiled and said, "Why do you want to cut a chicken with an ox knife?" "It means, is education necessary to manage such a small place? Unexpectedly, Ziyou immediately pushed back the teacher's words and said, "I have heard the teacher say that when an official studies, he will have a kind heart, and when ordinary people study, they will be easy to listen to instructions." Confucius said at once, "Disciples, Yan Yan is right. What I just said was just a joke with him. "In a happy atmosphere, the students not only felt the kindness of the teacher, but also listened to the teacher's teachings again.
In a word, it is precisely because Confucius correctly handled the above six relations that he set an example for future generations in teaching methods while establishing private schools. These teaching methods, which have been tested for more than two thousand years, are still worth learning from today.