1. Background:

Politically, the corruption of autocratic politics and the crackdown on peasant uprisings.

Economically, with the development of the commodity economy, the sprouts of capitalism are slowly developing. (fundamental reason).

In terms of ideology and culture, the imperial examination based on Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism made the ideological world show a conservative habit; as Western learning spread to the east, modern science and technology began to be introduced, broadening people's horizons.

2. Representative figures and opinions:

(1) "Heretic" Li Zhi, whose works include "Burning Books" and "Collecting Books": denying the teachings of Confucius and Mencius; criticizing Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism; Advocate freedom of individuality and oppose blind obedience to the will of the ruler; pursue material enjoyment; advocate equality between men and women.

Philosophical Thought: Point out that all things originate from the contradictory yin and yang and are not born from "natural principles", thereby denying the The theoretical basis of "preserving natural principles and destroying human desires".

(2) Gu, Wang, and Huang:

Politically, oppose monarchy, advocate freedom of speech, and establish supervision agencies;

Academically, it advocates promoting a pragmatic style of study and behavior, and "practicing the world";

Economically, it attaches great importance to the development of handicrafts and commerce, and proposes that "industry and commerce are both fundamental"