These three countries encountered many difficulties in the process of reform, because the agricultural system in the past was too deep and political centralization involved too much, so it was not easy to be thoroughly remoulded. The new society needs to be based on business habits, and its activities are based on the functions of low-level structures. The old French regime, Russia under the czar and traditional China could not adapt to the environment immediately, because their existing systems could not produce formulas and laws for the free exchange of various economic factors.
What happened in these three countries can't be completely attributed to simple organizations in the past. They all reflect the light and show the characteristics of bureaucracy. Louis XIV of France (reigned 1643- 17 15) claimed that "I am the country". It can be seen that he enjoyed the country very successfully. Russia's Ekaterina II (1762- 1796) and Alexander I (1801825) were both wise masters in the period of "enlightened autocracy". His literary martial arts were compared with Kangxi (1662- 1722), Yongzheng (1723- 1735) and Qianlong (1736- 1795) in the Qing Dynasty.
All three movements mentioned above put forward class struggle. Lenin advocated that "all power should be handed over to the Soviet Union", apparently imitating the strategy of "Monta Gnad" in the French Revolution. It is not unique that China organized the so-called "Rebellion General Command" during the Cultural Revolution. Because at the end of 18, there was also a "chaos Committee" in Paris. The difficulties encountered by France, Russia and China are due to social and economic inequality, and the conflict of class interests is the focus of all problems? On the other hand, is it because of the experience of French, Russian and China that the decision-making of the whole world will only take the capitalist road in the future, because "real gold is not afraid of fire"?
This is not the only problem. Capitalism, as an organization and a movement, occurred before the French Revolution, but the term capitalism came into being because of the French Revolution and its process (see Chapter 1 for details), so it has a history of nearly 200 years. After this development, especially in Chinese mainland and the Soviet Union recently, it is doubtful whether this concept, which is opposite to socialism, can remain unchanged. This book quotes induction. It is suggested that France, the Soviet Union and China should first incorporate digital management procedures, or put forward the experience of trying to enter this field. From a technical point of view, if we can make a practical anatomy of the above three actions and refer to the information in the previous chapters, we should be able to put forward a more objective but specific answer to the above questions when we make a conclusion in the next chapter.
French Revolution
The French Revolution is a controversial topic. Historian georges lefebvre wrote in 1932: "The old system pushed the history of French agriculture onto the road of capitalism, and the Great Revolution suddenly completed this work." This view cannot be recognized by other writers. Lefebvre mentioned in another book: "The progress of capitalism has not accelerated in this decade. The environment will only reduce it. " The two views of music are actually contradictory, but they can still be established at the same time, because the former refers to capitalism as a system and involves organizations; The latter is the actual amount of accumulated capital and the degree of mobilizing human and material resources. One is a long-term view, and the other is a short-term judgment. However, the difference between them is very misleading.
Writing history from personal experience is rather tangled. A well-known example is the argument between distinguished professor Ollard, the first French Revolution in Paris University, and his disciple Albert Mathiez at the beginning of this century. In the late French Revolution, radicals were led by Dandong, Mara and robespierre. After Mara was assassinated by a female assassin, only Dandong and robespierre were left. In Ollard's view, Dandong was a hero, while robespierre was vain and bookish, so he decided the road of revolution according to his personal likes and dislikes. Martinez stressed that robespierre and his comrades worked sincerely for Wang. Dandong is corrupt and kind, and may betray the revolution at any time. For decades, they have written special books, taught and edited special problems. In addition, there are nearly a thousand monographs about the Great Revolution, more than ten volumes, and countless trivial periodical texts. The release date of this book coincides with Louis XVI's Manor-General and the Bastille. The French are ready to provide new feelings in the commemorative activities. It is expected that the writing of the Great Revolution will be dazzling at this time. After reading their works, 1000% of our energy was exhausted. How can we extract their essence and make a short comment?
However, history is a very broad field. When we talk about pigs, everyone has different goals. In our view, the French Revolution is a * * * topic in human history, which has influenced the development of other countries. If we give up this theme, the deeds of the first few chapters of this book cannot be explained, and the future development is not convenient. Under this kind of international concern, the French Revolution, as we know it, has played an exemplary role. The last chapter said that the United States, Japan and Germany lacked a central system in the past, so the creation of new systems was less hindered. We arranged a hypothesis for us in advance, so our observation focused on the technical difficulties that France encountered when it suddenly reorganized at the end of18th century, without paying attention to personal situation. Here's an example:
Louis XVI's attempt to escape 179 1 June, 2008 is a legendary episode in the history of the Great Revolution. Originally planned well, the difficulties were initially broken. Only after leaving Paris, a group of people let their guard down, the king was arrested twice, and the garage could not keep the predetermined speed, so that the people who were ready to meet on the road had to leave their posts and the horses were dismissed. The king arrived in Lannes. The delay here is one of the main reasons for being intercepted. Warren is not far from the border, and the Austrian army is ready to meet him. It is true that people who sympathize with the king and queen are heartbroken, and even historians can't help asking: What will happen in the future if Jeanlouis, the fate of heaven, reaches the border safely? However, this fantasy is not only useless, but may lead to illusion. Later facts proved that the problems in France that day could not be solved by strengthening or even reforming the high-level state institutions. In this case, the king's power is minimal.
The French Revolution has its basic reasons behind the scenes, and its composition is complex and magnificent. At that time, no one could grasp the situation. If this were not the case, so many revolutionaries and so-called counter-revolutionaries would not have been guillotined one after another. Moreover, all these brewing factors suddenly appeared and stayed for a short time at each stage, so everyone was not encouraged to take the initiative immediately. Lefevere described 1789 10 months. When a Parisian woman forced Louis to move to Paris from Versailles, she wrote, "No one can dream that the revolution has just begun." It can be seen that people always think that the drizzle and breeze that day are like waves and storms in the future.
Louis XVI was accused by historians of deviating from his will. At first, he had a chance to escape and didn't want to escape, because it was not Wang's spirit to escape responsibility. When Paris was unstable, he transferred his troops to the defense, but when he was threatened by thugs, he refused to use force. He plotted for the queen many times and changed his mind temporarily. Only when he died on the guillotine did he die fair and square. After careful analysis, we think he lacks decision. The main reason is that the situation is unclear, and his concept of responsibility to all parties conflicts with each other, which is not untrue. At the beginning of the revolution, everyone could not predict the extent of its involvement, that is, a few people expressed extreme views, which later proved that their vision was still too narrow. The Great Revolution, from policy improvement to constitutional monarchy to the further establishment of a republic, further revised the whole human culture, from ethics and religion to calendars and weights and measures. Finally, it became a military dictatorship, and the remaining waves fluctuated for decades. In this case, we can only understand what clemenceau, nicknamed "Premier Hu" in World War I said, "The revolution is a whole and a big square", because impersonal factors are more important than personal factors. This also means that corporate responsibility is more important than personal responsibility. It is also because of impersonal factors that the Great Revolution can be linked with the history of countries that are not directly related to France, such as China.
Accusing King Louis of stupidity is tantamount to accusing robespierre of injustice, and even more tantamount to accusing Napoleon of disloyalty and unbelief. Robespierre was wearing a light blue coat, aristocratic breeches and powdered hair. His cronies, Sheng Gang, wore earrings, and Dandong infiltrated personal interests in negotiations with foreign countries, at least insincerely. But Napoleon was also accused of marrying a notorious woman. Be promoted by nepotism. As for getting rich by revolution, all Bonaparte's brothers and sisters claim to be kings or nobles. Napoleon's plunder abroad has not been publicly explained. In a word, morality is the last link of truth. Once it is put forward, there is no turning back, and the story has to end. The above comments and accusations are not close to the subject we want to examine. The Great Revolution tried to redefine the standards of human morality. Its achievements should not be divided by moral issues first. Let's quote Lefevere again: He said, "A moralist will praise courage and condemn cruelty, but he can't explain the accident."
The following are our views on the Great Revolution, focusing on technology and tracing back to the most basic facts in the revolutionary process: The occurrence of the Great Revolution is generally believed to have started at 1789. In fact, the year before last, parlement in Paris denied the king's general orders to levy taxes and modify judicial procedures, forcing the king to hold a three-level meeting, which was already before the prelude. Sent an uncontrolled pioneer of nobles and privileged classes. Relationship is very important, because when the Great Revolution happened, it was not a fatal conflict between one class and another, but between different classes and regions, and various interests were intertwined. Later revolutionaries can see that class struggle is actually a tool to solve problems. Later, this practice was also seen in Russian and China.
The French Parliament is different from the British Parliament. It is not a legislature, but a high court. Also maintained a style similar to that of the Tang Dynasty in China. All laws and regulations must be "registered" by the parliament before they can take effect, so the administrative organs cannot ignore them. Moreover, it inherited the legacy of the feudal system and the judiciary was independent, so even a monarch who was not particularly powerful could not control it.1866617
At this time, the national finance also fell into a low tide. It turns out that in the18th century, the French military and political power was in vain, the country lived by borrowing money, and the army also relied on mercenaries from Germany and Switzerland to enrich its ranks. Previous international wars were either disastrous or the outcome was inconclusive. Participating in the American War of Independence is a victorious country, but it is also a loss-making business. At the same time, the financial difficulties cannot be solved internally, because the court's expenditure is less than 6% of the budget, and the interest paid by public bonds exceeds half of the budget.
On that day, the population of France was estimated to be between 23 million and 25 million, and that of Paris was over 600,000. France is rich in resources. If its economy is well organized, its national economy and people's life should not be dwarfed by its neighbors such as Britain and the Netherlands. Moreover, France's national economy has started. Since17th century, the mercantilist policy has passed through the famous minister Li Sailiu and famous ministers. France has made great progress in shipbuilding, overseas trade, textile, glass industry and luxury goods manufacturing. The organizational form of joint-stock companies is also roughly the same as that of other advanced countries. Speculation in the Paris Stock Exchange was the climax of the Great Revolution until the "terror period" of 1793 was closed. However, in the legal system, these new economic factors have not been combined into a self-regulating structure (in our eyes, capitalism is not yet mature), but can only be flattered by the atmosphere of bureaucratic organizations, which can openly sell various commercial privileges. Now, it seems that the word "corruption" can no longer describe this situation. The main reason is that industry and commerce can not be integrated with agriculture, their wealth is fragile at the grassroots level, and their interests only benefit from a part of the population, compared with the backward situation in Germany (see chapter 6 for details)
1789 convened a three-level meeting, indicating that France actually has three systems. Its principle is similar to the feudal system and county system before the Wu-Chu Rebellion in China in the early Han Dynasty, but its complexity is far beyond this. The first class is monks, Catholic abbots and ordinary monks and nuns, with a number of no more than 65,438+10,000. They have their own administrative system and religious courts, which are generally handled by believers. Many bishops and abbots are actually village lords. Monks not only check the health and death of all believers, but also manage their marriage and inheritance, education and charity. The first class did not pay taxes to the king, but traditionally paid to the state treasury voluntarily through consultation, and sometimes paid part of the debt interest, but there were no cases.
The second category is aristocrats. The total is only 400 thousand. There are mainly two kinds, one is the primitive samurai class, some are of German descent before the Middle Ages, and some are later blocked. The other is the heads of judges and local administrators at all levels, who usually pay for officials. At the end of 2008+2008, French aristocrats were very confused, some were extremely rich and some were extremely poor. Generally speaking, titles are inherited by the eldest son, but there are some. Only for the recipient himself. Navy and army officers are led by nobles, and sometimes their status includes privileges. In the past, the idea that every nobleman was a manor owner no longer existed. Because French land can be bought and sold freely, sometimes the whole manor falls into the hands of civilian buyers. However, the feudal system was not completely abolished, some nobles were lords, and the manor court was still open. It is estimated that on the eve of the Great Revolution, about 1/5 taxis in France were still in the hands of nobles. Except for them,
It is difficult for aristocratic organizations without collective organizations to extract direct taxes from them. On the one hand, this is also due to the organization of local governments in France. With the development of history, the central area of early French territory belonged to the king, and the chief executive stationed by the central government was generally unrestricted. However, when all units in the frontier returned to China, they all had contracts with the king, and each was presided over by hereditary local leaders and representative local institutions. The tax has yet to be negotiated. Moreover, the manor system continues to exist. It is also the reason why the survey statistics are difficult to be accurate. The feudal rules in Europe never stated what kind of industries were owned by the people, but most people enjoyed privileges on the same land, so farming had to be done according to the rules, which further hindered the promotion of agriculture. In addition, the whole city and town enjoy different privileges.
The third category is civilians, who are said to account for 94% of the national population, most of whom are farmers. The French husband power system has been abolished for a long time, except in a few areas in the northeast corner. Generally speaking, farmers are free to buy industries. The proportion of yeoman farmers and tenant farmers varies greatly from place to place. The common difficulty is that there is too little arable land to improve agricultural technology. In the past few decades, the population has increased greatly, and most farmers feel oppressed. It also affects people's lives. According to the research, compared with 18 th century, on the eve of the Great Revolution, land rent increased by 98%, prices increased by 65%, and wages only increased by 22%. Therefore, the lives of ordinary people have only gone from bad to worse. 1788, the harvest was poor, the winter was cold, the river was frozen, and the grain could not be transported. In the following year, as many as half of the city's citizens lost their jobs.
The bourgeoisie in the city is the leader of the revolution. It is true that they fought for their rights and hated the privileges of the nobility. However, the simple conflict of class interests is not the main motivation for them to give up their lives and launch a political wave. Because they have a successful career, they can also marry a noble or buy a knighthood to donate an official. It's just that they feel depressed under the old system. Since the Enlightenment, various concepts of natural human rights and national conventions have been deeply rooted in people's hearts. The distance between thought and knowledge and social environment and living habits is the most powerful condition for modern society to drive the middle class to participate in the revolution. France already has this background at this time. Later, bankers and wealthy businessmen donated money to the citizens to riot, lawyers joined the organization with eloquence, Sies took part in the revolution as a member of a cult, and Mirabo was reduced from a noble to a civilian representative. Like robespierre and most revolutionaries, Dandong was a lawyer. Mara changed from a doctor to a reporter. None of the above can be easily explained by one's own class interests. At the same time, the bourgeoisie (bollfg60isi) is an extremely broad and irrelevant name. From the upper class to the rich, tycoons are almost privileged classes, and craftsmen who operate on a small scale can all be called bourgeoisie or citizen class. Although the Great Revolution made the bourgeoisie rise, many members of the bourgeoisie were also called the bourgeoisie.
Now let's trace back to the situation when Louis XVI held the third-level meeting: this meeting has never been held since 16 14. Because his ancestors Louis XIV and Louis XV were in power 13 1 year, they paid attention to personal politics and lacked a sound organizational system. At this time, the king called the three-tier parliament for this purpose. Solve financial problems. However, the lower classes were severely exploited, not only as a feudal practice, but also paid all the direct taxes (taille), provided corvees and paid most of the salt taxes (gabelle). They have been out of breath for a long time, so they can't increase taxes. The new burden is also inconvenient to be directly allocated to other secondary levels. In the past, houses with overlapping public and private finances have not been reorganized for a long time. Where can they be increased? Therefore, the collection of taxes and rents is mostly contracted. Only when professional collectors are familiar with local and personal situations can they perform their tasks and profit from them. If the situation can still be managed by numbers, there is no need to disturb them for a long time. At the same time, there are many problems that will affect the whole body, such as the intensification of the trend, the nobles fleeing abroad, and many lower-class people losing their jobs. Raising food prices should be beneficial to farmers, but the central and western regions grow grapes to make wine. They lost the right to collect firewood and graze in the commons, and immediately lost their livelihood. Such a problem cannot be planned, and no countermeasures can be found.
Therefore, judging from various impersonal factors, France has been unable to negotiate peacefully and reorganize fairly. It wanted to put everything into a melting pot and wait for the arrangement of history, but no one saw through this situation at that time.
1789 when the third-level meeting was held, units and localities at all levels listed their requirements for the king of letters as "ahi6y" according to the previous article. We might as well call it "Chen Qingbiao". One of the secondary requirements requires the king to fix his aristocratic status. Everyone's rank should be carefully determined, so that they can form their own consortium and system like monks, and the court can't sell officials in the future. The king's closest ministers must be selected from the nobility, and their children are educated by the royal family. Today, we can't help but be surprised that such a request can be described as ignorance. The purpose of the Great Revolution was to liquidate the nobles. Once the pace began, many nobles were guillotined without trial. Then why were they so overbearing and didn't ask for forgiveness, but boasted and asked for enhanced privileges?
This move can also be explained by impersonal relationships:
Putting forward Chen Qingbiao is also a legal procedure. The third-level meeting was originally a dialogue between the king and his subjects. The king, of course, asked Qi Xin, a representative at all levels, to work together to decide on tax collection, and the latter took this opportunity to put the situation in by going up one flight of stairs. Both power and obligation and power are in line with the feudal system. It's just that the meeting is divided into three levels, and the convening of the meeting has cast a shadow of class struggle.
Representatives at all levels are elected by local units with different procedures. Generally, you have to go through three or four primary elections and re-election. Therefore, representatives can only be considered as authorized by local units to participate in consultations on state affairs, rather than participating in personal opinions. After this arrangement, voters in local units also feel that they have become a public opinion organization, and they are duty-bound unless Chen Qingbiao gets an answer in their class and place. So Paris is the head, and this place is both the national capital. There is also a salon for fashionistas to discuss politics, which has produced many periodicals and pamphlets to incite revolutionary sentiment. Since then, 407 "electors" in Paris have held regular meetings after electing the deputies to the third-level congresses, and the Paris Commune and garde nationale have emerged from this meeting of electors. These institutions and organizations, as well as clubs where Paris politicians often meet, have become the basic forces behind the revolution. Since then, they have maintained order. And instigated the mob. The situation in other regions is similar. 1789 At the beginning of the riots in Paris, the governors sent by the old system fled in succession, and the government organizations had collapsed. Towns generally follow the Paris method, and they no longer accept the command of the administrative system under the jurisdiction of the king, except for the bills of the National Assembly.
So the weakness of the old system is one of the main reasons why the situation is out of control. This situation also made the French Revolution close to the Russian October Revolution, but it could not be compared with the German unification movement. On July 1789, 14, the people of Paris first rushed into the disabled building and got 32,000 muskets. Then they attacked the Bastille in order to get weapons and gunpowder and lift the fortress for the citizens of Paris.
For the sake of simplicity, the Great Revolution was divided into two stages: the first stage lasted more than three years from the opening of the third-level meeting in May 1789 to August 1792, with the aim of establishing a constitutional monarchy. 1792 In August, Louis lost all power, and the revolution went from moderate to extreme, and finally ended in the re-ign of terror. Then it ended because of the "hot moon reaction", which lasted for 1 794 in July and nearly two years in the later period. Since then, Napoleon seized power with a mutiny of 1, 799+0,654,38+0, and the period of more than five years can only be regarded as a consolidation period.
When the third-level meeting was held, there were about 600 third-level delegates and about 300 first-and second-level delegates. At first, the king and parliament insisted on discussing and voting at the third level respectively according to the decree of 16 14. If a bill is passed at two levels, it will be passed. Obviously, even if the country wants to change its principles and policies, it is difficult to make any changes to the national system. Therefore, the representative of the third level advocates. Under this proposition, the third-level meeting became the "National Assembly", which later called itself the "Constitutional Assembly", and the representative political institution produced by the Constitutional Assembly was called the "Legislative Assembly". 179 1 All the above are different from the "[National Assembly]" in the later period of the revolution). Because the king blocked the parliament, these representatives gathered in the indoor tennis court of Versailles Palace, and encouraged some nobles representing lower-class monks and progressives to participate, fearing that the king would suppress it by force, the participants signed an oath, saying that they would never disperse until they achieved their goals. Someone mentioned
Seeing that the situation was out of control, Louis XVI ordered the first-and second-class representatives to participate. His concession was not out of enlightened opinions, but because of threats at home and abroad. Paris felt food panic and didn't know the king's intentions. He concentrated his troops inside and outside Paris to prevent the mob from making stupid moves and protect the security of the National Assembly. But the so-called mob, as organized, is actually a revolutionary mass force and a talisman for some representatives in the National Assembly.
A three-level meeting was held on May 5th, a tennis court was sworn in on June 20th, the Paris Commune was organized on June 25th, and the Bastille was captured on July 14. /kloc-in July of 0/7, Louis XVI traveled to Paris, hoping to appease the people. 10 On June 5th, there were still more than 6,000 street women in Paris walking through the rain with javelin and double guns. Petition to the National Assembly and the king at Versailles, demanding "bread". With the support of 20,000 national troops behind them, the king and queen were forced to move from Versailles to the Tuileries Palace in Paris. Two weeks later, the National Assembly met in Paris, and since then, they have been in the shadow of the Paris masses. The masses or mobs under the command of the Paris Commune have the right to influence the future development of state affairs.
There is no exact explanation for these deeds so far. For example, the riots in Paris and women's demonstrations were obviously planned and presided over by someone. Who are they? What was the original purpose? Although historians have their own guesses, Duke Orleans, the distant uncle of today's king, wants to be a constitutional monarch himself, or Isaiah and Mikhail may have heard about it. Some people even suspect that Lafayette, who became famous during the American Revolutionary War and is now elected as the commander of the national army, and several newspaper editors are accused of instigating this action, but no one has provided reliable evidence.
And in 1789, the harvest was good, the food problem was solved once, and the tense air was relieved. Then why do earth-shattering events need to be launched in the future, and three years later, the civil war and the constant bleeding on the guillotine are still happening?
The National Assembly decided to take over the property of the temple, abolish tithes, lift various feudal obligations, unconditionally abolish personal obligations, and redeem land obligations at cost. It also adopted the Declaration of Human Rights and Civil Rights, the first paragraph of which proclaims that "mortals enjoy freedom and equal rights from birth, and only under the utilitarian conditions will there be social differences. In addition, these rights are listed as "freedom, property rights and the right to resist oppression". All citizens are equal before the law. The new law has not yet been promulgated, and the new constitution divides citizens into "active citizens" and "inactive citizens". The former has the lowest tax and enjoys the right to vote. Its organization is unicameral, so there is no difference between nobles and civilians, let alone monks. 18616.1661666617 The king retains limited veto power over bills passed by the Legislative Assembly (the Legislative Assembly is convened every two years, and the king can veto the same bill twice, so the veto is valid for four years). In order to cope with the current financial problems, it was decided to issue a kind of paper money called "assignats" as a guarantee for the confiscation of temple property.