The life of Bertrand Arthur William Russell
Bertrand Arthur William Russell (1872-1970), a famous bourgeois in the 20th century A thinker and social activist, he wrote more than 40 books in his lifetime, and even more papers or other articles. His achievements in many aspects have profoundly influenced Western philosophy.
On May 18, 1872, Russell was born into an aristocratic family in Trelake, Monmouthshire, England. His grandfather, Earl John Russell, twice served as Prime Minister and was a leader in the fight for the passage of the British Reform Act of 1832. His mother died when Russell was two, and his father died about a year later. Grandparents and grandparents voluntarily assumed the responsibility of raising children. Russell's grandmother had liberal political views and often taught Russell to reflect on his own thoughts and actions. Russell has an introverted personality and a habit of thinking diligently, which was undoubtedly influenced by his grandmother.
When Russell was 11 years old, he studied Euclidean geometry from his brother. At that time, he could only accept the definitions, but doubted the reliability of the axioms. This doubt determines the style and goal of Russell's philosophical career, which is to explore the certainty and doubtfulness of "how much and to what extent we can know" in a skeptical and cautious style.
In October 1890, Russell was admitted to Trinity College of Cambridge University, thus entering an educational field with fresh air and active thinking. However, the teacher had little influence on him, but the interactions with his classmates benefited him deeply. Soon, he got acquainted with famous figures in the school such as Whitehead, Moore, MacTaggart, economist Keynes and others, and soon he became the most popular one among them. In his third year, although Russell passed the degree examination with excellent results, he vowed never to study mathematics, which only focused on skills but not on basic theoretical proofs, and switched to philosophy. He was determined to establish a philosophical system like Hegel and devote himself to the cause of philosophy.
When Russell just graduated from university, he was convinced of the philosophy of Hegel and Kant. In 1893, he wrote a mathematical philosophy paper "On the Foundations of Geometry" in an attempt to repair Kant's theory that the form of space and time is an a priori synthetic judgment. This qualified him as a Fellow of Cambridge University.
At that time, German mathematical theory was very advanced and a fundamental change was brewing. When Russell thoroughly mastered these theories, he categorically gave up his long-advocated idealist views and turned to realism, determined to seek a correct mathematical theory.
In July 1900, he met Pino, the founder of symbolic logic. After Russell read Pino's works, he felt that many questions suddenly had answers. In October of the same year, he co-wrote "Principles of Mathematics" with Whitehead, which was published in three volumes in 1910, 1911 and 1912. This book is epoch-making in the history of logical development. From then on, logic became independent from philosophy. Later, German universities included mathematical logic in mathematics departments. All this proves Russell's special status.
Russell found that in the process of people trying to use logic to lay a theoretical foundation for mathematics, a basic concept "general category" that was often used to explain other concepts was self-contradictory, so he established the " Paradox" theory, also known as "Russell's Paradox". In order to confirm the "Russell Paradox", many mathematicians and logicians have proposed various theoretical solutions, but none of them can explain it. Russell himself also interrupted the writing of "Principles of Mathematics" to conduct further research on it. Later he proposed "type theory" to explain this phenomenon. "Type theory" also had a great influence. It prompted mathematicians to understand the importance of certain words and semantic research, and also gave birth to another philosophical thought of Russell himself, that is, the principle of logical atomism.
The basic argument of Russell's logical atomism is that the world is composed of some simple special facts, which have only simple properties and simple relationships between each other, so understanding the essence of any thing or subject The only way is to analyze until there are no more "logical atoms" that can be analyzed. Logical atoms are not small particles of matter, but the so-called concepts that make up things. Russell's theory had a huge influence on the Vienna Circle that emerged in the mid-1920s and the logical semantics that emerged in the 1930s.
The more important thing in Russell's philosophical thought is his "neutral monism". The general idea is that the material that makes up the world is neither pure mind nor pure matter, nor the binary opposition of mind and matter, but something that is neither mind nor matter, and has a neutral attitude towards both mind and matter. This kind of neutral thing sometimes refers to events, and sometimes it refers to sense organs and materials. This "world material" is the most primitive thing that constitutes the mind. These views are reflected in his two works "Analysis of Objects" and "Analysis of Mind" completed in 1921.
Russell has always been keen on discussing political theory and actively participated in various political activities. As early as 1895, after his first marriage, he traveled to the European continent with his wife. He studied the economy and the democracy of German society, and praised the "Communist Manifesto" and the three volumes of "Das Kapital" as important works. A great masterpiece with great literary talent. At that time, he had contacts with the leaders of the Social Democratic Party and Marxists Bebel and Liebknecht. During World War I, he was active in anti-war activities. He joined the Anti-Draft Association, delivered a series of speeches calling for peace, and offered sincere help to those who refused to participate in criminal wars.
In 1916, he was fined 100 pounds for writing an anti-war leaflet. When he refused to pay, the court auctioned off his books at Cambridge University as collateral. He was subsequently dismissed from his teaching position at Trinity College. In 1918, he wrote an editorial for an anti-war newspaper and was imprisoned for six months for "insulting the Allies." Because of his reputation, he was sentenced to write and study in a small cell in Brixton Prison. After the war, Russell visited the Soviet Union and met with Lenin, Trotsky, and Gorky. He expressed sympathy for the goals of communist beliefs, but also expressed concerns about the Soviet political and social way of life. In August 1920, Russell visited China. He always sympathized with the oppressed peoples. In the Anglo-Boer War, he sided with the Boers, for which he was extremely isolated among the British aristocracy
In 1934, his "Freedom and Courage: 1814~1914" was published, in which he detailed He systematically elaborated on his political thoughts and proposed that politics, economics and historical figures are three important aspects of social and political history. In 1938, he wrote the book "Power", advocating the implementation of "taming power law" to limit the desire for power of certain politicians.
As Hitler rose to power, Russell opposed Nazi ways, but he also opposed any steps leading to war. His attitude changed in 1939, believing that "the war against the Nazis was necessary." In 1949, he was elected as a member of the British Academy, and in 1950, he won the Nobel Prize for Literature.
After the 1950s, Russell became a heroic warrior defending peace. In 1953, the United States tested a hydrogen bomb, which changed his political views. He advocated that rather than fight a war, he would rather live under a dictatorship, expressing his concern about future wars. In December 1954, Russell delivered a radio speech on the British Broadcasting Corporation called "Dangers Facing Mankind", severely condemning the Bikini hydrogen bomb test. In early 1955, the famous Russell-Einstein Statement on the Nuclear Ban was drafted and signed by scientists from various countries. In 1961, the 89-year-old Russell and his wife participated in a demonstration in London to oppose the development of nuclear weapons by the US government. Later, during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, he strongly called on the leaders of the United States and the Soviet Union to hold high-level talks to avoid war.
Russell was not a communist. Until Stalin's death in 1953, he never relaxed his criticism of the Soviet Union. Later the attitude softened. But during the Vietnam War, he provided funds and organized mock trials of U.S. leaders' war crimes. A war tribunal chaired by Sartre and Etke Deutscher opened in Stockholm in May 1967 and issued a detailed indictment of the activities of the U.S. military. When the Soviet Union invaded the Czech Republic in 1968, Russell strongly protested. As an international peace fighter, he became a banner for left-wing students and the masses in many Western countries.
Russell's married life is full of legend.
After Russell graduated from Cambridge University, he married the beautiful American girl Pearsall Smith, who was 5 years older than Russell. This marriage lasted from 1894 and had several love experiences, including liaisons with the gorgeous Mrs. Ottoline Morel, Mrs. Constance Malleson and the famous actor Colette O'Neill. He married Winifred Blake in 1921 and Helen Spence in 1936. Sixteen years later, he married for the fourth time, to Edith Finch.
When Russell was young, he was skinny and had black hair. In middle age, he became thinner, with bright eyes, a slight smile, and white hair. He had an image of a philosopher, giving people a cold but kind feeling.
Russell was a gentle, even shy man who was a delight as a friend, companion and conversationalist.
Russell is very funny. After winning the Nobel Prize for Literature, Russell, who had never written a literary work, actually started writing novels. The first novel was published anonymously in 1951, and a reward was offered for guessing the author. No one guessed it, because no one believed that this famous philosopher who was nearly 80 years old still had the talent to write novels.
On February 2, 1970, Earl Russell died at his home in Wales at the age of 98. His life was full of twists and turns, so people gave him mixed reviews. But he was indeed a man who greatly influenced the century. Russell described the motivations of his long, exciting, and complex life this way: "Three simple and extremely powerful emotions have dominated my life: the desire for love, the pursuit of knowledge, and deep sympathy for the suffering of mankind." He It has also been said that only one emotion, the desire for love, is fully satisfied. When he married for the fourth time, he was already 80 years old.
On February 2, 1970, Russell died in his hometown of Wales.
2. The literary history of Bertrand Arthur William Russell:
In the book "Reminiscences of Things Past" (1956), Russell pointed out: "A style of writing Unless it is a direct, almost unconscious expression of the writer's personality, and at the same time this personality is worthy of expression, it is not a good writing style." After some exploration, he chose his own writing style, which required a lot of attention to the writing style. The conclusion must first be reached through his thinking before it can be written down directly and naturally. He asserted: "In my opinion, Flaubert and Pater are best forgotten.
"This style of writing, embodied in a personality clearly worthy of expression, gives Russell's work a literary value rather than a general expression of philosophical thought. Although his professional writings are not easily accessible to untrained readers , but his same incisive style is evident throughout all of his works. Of course, George Santayana considered the only truly valuable of Russell's works to be the most abstract ones. There is disagreement over the literary merit, but most critics praise Russell's prose for its simplicity and clarity.
In the broad scope of Russell's essays, there are many topics that would conventionally qualify him for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Not only a mathematical philosopher, a scholar of metaphysics and epistemology, an economic critic, and an expositor of modern science, he was also a moral philosopher and teacher, a philosopher of history, religion, and language, and a satirical commentator on the enduring follies of mankind. -- and all of it was enough to make him a full-fledged literary career.
Many of Russell's formulations of moral arguments, some of which were first written in the 1920s, may seem dated today, yet it is easy to understand how they were then. Why did they anger so many moralists when they appeared? He condemned the cruel nature of people in their religious beliefs and sexual ignorance. He sounded very much like the latest enlightener who attacked superstition and ignorance, but Russell had many of the same radicals. Contemporaneous with the idealistic English literary aristocracy, his crusade against Christianity's habitual cruelty paralleled the literary critic William Albertson's scathing condemnation of the cruelty of Christ's God, who believed that the only prerequisite in sexual relations was fidelity. and mutual attraction, a proposition endorsed by D. H. Lawrence. Russell can therefore be seen as an anti-traditional lone rebel: perhaps best viewed as a wandering shepherd whose sexual freedom has been made possible by modern contraceptives. became possible, even well beyond the scope of what he said, while there were still outposts of power worship and religious revenge. When Russell was a young man, organized religion had reached the point of perfection, all of which led Russell to be regarded as One of the moralists who changed people's minds.
Of all his works, no one caused as much conflict on moral issues as the pamphlet "What I Believe in" published in 1925. It became an important basis for the 1940 New York hearings that found him unfit to teach at City College. The first paragraph of the book declares that man is a part of nature, not a separate entity; it then explains that man is an epiphenomenon. The physiology of this epiphenomenon could be elucidated entirely by physics, and Russell immediately became a target of all moralists. For Russell, the question of the existence of God was "beyond the reach of knowledge." ". The horrific Inquisition has brought "great harm" to mankind. Russell put forward his own views on replacing theology based on fear and ignorance: "A good life is inspired by love and guided by knowledge. . ”
Russell tends to determinism. At least he believes that all actions have their motives. He also believes that human beings have free will within a certain range. For example, in addition to what they are willing to do, they may also Do something else. But his denial of the role of motivation in the will is not helpful in trying to influence the behavior of other people, so the claim of determinism must be correct. So conventionally, Russell's definition of free will is too weak for us to give it. Praise and criticism. He himself admitted that such praise may be the reason for other actions, but it has no real moral significance.
Russell's answer to the question of how people act can be summarized as: After due consideration. , follow the dictates of conscience. There is no escape from the fact that a particular action may not turn out to be objectively right: Morality is governed by an informed conscience. These two points—about free will and conscience—are discussed in Fundamental Principles of Ethics. (1910) and Human Society in Ethics and Politics (1954)
Russell had a strong interest in educational philosophy, and he not only ran schools but also wrote frequently. Writings on how to educate children. His ideas were close to the doctrine of Rousseau, who opposed the obligation of church and state to "cast" the minds of young people. What is most important is the teacher's respect for the students. The teacher should "feel mainly from the child something sacred, vague, infinite, something special and precious, a gradually developing principle of life, and the silence of the world." "concrete fragments of the competitive state of information". The danger of schooling is to cultivate patriotic feelings that muddy history and to instill religious belief in young people. Equally harmful is to inculcate in young people shallow ideas of "good manners", This idea of ??"good manners" is convinced of its own validity, and considers proper manners to be more desirable and "pursued" than intelligence or artistic creativity, or vitality, or any other source of progress in the world.
In The Aims of Education (1926), Russell set out his views on good schools and good teachers. He distinguished four basic characteristics that could be considered ideal qualities: energy, courage, sensitivity and quality. Intelligence. For example, vitality enables people to shed old ideas that are gradually becoming obsolete, expand their knowledge and interest in the world, and thereby reduce their inappropriate envy of the achievements of others.
The highest type of courage - not based solely on inhibition - requires two aspects of mental characteristics: self-respect and an outlook on life that is independent of personal emotions. Self-respect must eschew humility, insincere inferiority, and should be based on a true understanding of one's goals. Above all, courage must face the real world, for “the perfect example of courage is found in the man who has many interests and who feels that he is but a small part of the world. This is not by despising himself, but by valuing many. something that is not his own."
The third characteristic of a good education is sensitivity, especially that rare but important kind of abstract sympathy. This compassion helps alleviate the pain of those who are distant and unseen. Russell said that people who were kind and generous in personal interactions were likely to be people who made their money from industries that exploited many poor people whose suffering he had never witnessed. He wrote: "That is the basic reason why large-scale industrialism is so cruel and why the oppression of subject peoples is tolerated."
Finally, in schooling, intelligence must be developed. This kind of intelligence is cultivated not by instilling beliefs in children, but by building on children's instinctive curiosity about the world. Once enlightenment, patience, and industry are combined, curiosity will create a society of educated citizens.
Russell's pure literary ability—a genius for sarcasm and satire expressed in a flowing style—is evident in Sketches of Intellectual Trash: An Amusing Catalog of Organizational and Personal Follies (1943) ), which Jonathan Swift, if he were alive, would proudly claim to be his masterpiece. "Sketches of Intellectual Garbage" is a witty exposé of the inconsistencies and illogicalities that exist in many conceptions of religious belief, nationalist self-aggrandizement, and sexuality. It fully embodies the best features of Russell's thought and the appreciation of literature and art by the mathematician who won the Nobel Prize for Literature.
3. The 1950 Nobel Prize for Literature Award Speech - Anders Osterling, Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy:
In 1946, Russell's masterpiece "The History of Western Philosophy" When "" came out, he himself was already 74 years old. Judging from the various profound skills in his masterpiece, we understand how hard and arduous efforts he went through to achieve this result. For example, when talking about the philosophers before Socrates, he said: "When studying a certain philosopher, the correct attitude should be neither humble nor arrogant. First, put yourself in their shoes and understand his thoughts. Give up your previous prejudices as much as possible and adopt a correct critical attitude."
In another place in this book, he wrote: "Forget the issues discussed in philosophy, or there may be various differences in your mind. All preconceived and fixed philosophical answers are bad. Teaching us how to live with doubts without letting them paralyze us may be the most important topic for those of us currently studying philosophy.”
For half a century, due to Russell's superb personal thinking, he has been the center of global attention and controversy. In addition to his regular writing and research, he is also ready to face any battle at any time. slack off. In terms of human knowledge and mathematics, his research results can be compared with Newton's achievements in mechanics. But it was not because of his achievements in this area that he won the Nobel Prize for Literature, but because he was able to successfully introduce general philosophical ideas to people. In doing so, he was the most successful example of always maintaining an interest in philosophers. .
His life's writings were mainly devoted to defending public conscience. As a philosopher, he pursues the line of British empirical philosophy represented by Locke and Hume. He has never been tempted by those idealistic creeds and is a fierce opponent. Regarding the set of philosophical thoughts on the European continent, he believed that they should be examined and discussed calmly from the British standpoint. In this way, in his rigorous attitude, he did not forget to use his sensitivity, calmness and wit, making his works full of these characteristics and becoming an extraordinary writer. Even from a purely literary point of view, his works are eternal and immortal. work. Such as "History of Western Philosophy" (1946), "Human Knowledge - Its Limits and Scope" (1948), and "My Mental Journey" (collected in "Russell's Philosophical Thoughts" published in 1951), all of which This is true; of course, many of his other works discussing social issues are also great and immortal works.
The formation of Russell's views and opinions are affected by various factors, which cannot be simply summarized. His family's stance on British politics has always been influenced by the Whig tradition. His grandfather, John Russell, was a spokesman for the Victorian court. Therefore, he was influenced by liberalism when he was young, and later encountered the impact of socialist ideological trends, making him a social critic who weighs the importance of everything and is good at independent thinking. From beginning to end, he enthusiastically warned us about the dangers of new bureaucracy. He emphasized individual rights, opposed centralized systems, and was deeply concerned about the threats to human beings' simple life interests caused by the increasing development of industrial civilization. After returning from his visit to the Soviet Union in 1920, he expressed disappointment and disgust with communism.
On the contrary, during his travels in China, he was deeply attracted by Chinese culture. He believed that the quiet spirit of Taoism and the individual education spirit of Confucianism could be used to balance the slightly radical and somewhat radical ideas that exist in Western culture. The use of barbaric style.
Many of Russell's works have attracted a lot of attacks. Unlike other philosophers, he believed that this was a natural and urgent matter for a writer. Of course, his rationalism cannot solve all thorny problems, nor can it be used as a panacea. Even if philosophers are willing to prescribe "prescriptions", it will not help. Unfortunately, there is and always will be a magical force in the world that pulls you away from rational analysis or control. In this way, Russell's works, even from a purely practical point of view, did not make his ideas receive much attention during the two wars. It seems that they were mainly completely abandoned. However, for his kind We particularly admire thinkers who are full of self-confidence and dare to stand up to the crowd with an optimistic and decisive attitude and say things that others dare not say. Every time I read his works, I feel as comfortable as listening to the outspoken protagonist in Bernard Shaw's comedy. Because the speech was always impressive with its high tone and clever words.
In short, we can say this: Russell's philosophy concretely reflects Mr. Alfred Nobel's original motivation for setting up the prize. Their views on life are very similar. Both men believed in skepticism and "utopian" ideals, and both emphasized the idealization of human behavior in their pessimistic views of the contemporary world. The Swedish Academy recognizes that he has carried forward Mr. Nobel's ideas. Therefore, on the 50th anniversary of the establishment of this award, it has decided to award the award to Russell in order to reward him as an advocate and advocate of idealism and humanitarianism in our era. A well-deserved giant of free speech and ideological liberation.
Oh my God - exactly 200 years ago, Jean-Jacques Rousseau said "no" when answering the question "Can art and science contribute to human morality?" And received the award from the Dijon Academy. Although this denial is not an earth-shattering move and has no significant results. Moreover, the Dijon Academy does not have any revolutionary purpose, but today, we also honor No. 1 with the same respect. The Bell Prize for Literature is awarded to you because your philosophical works undoubtedly express moral civilization and are an extremely perfect promotion of Nobel's spirit. Therefore, we commend you as a leader in humanitarianism and ideological emancipation. At the same time, we are deeply honored that you attended the 50th anniversary celebration of the Nobel Foundation. Now, please come up and accept the 1950 Nobel Prize for Literature from His Majesty the King.
4. Personal views on the trial of Bertrand Arthur William Russell:
In 1940, the world-famous philosopher and mathematician Bertrand Russell received a City University invited him to teach in the philosophy department of the school for one year, but he was deprived of this opportunity before he could take up the post. He was accused of being an "advocate of immoral sexual relations" and forced to endure a defamatory and degrading court trial.
Now it seems that Russell's crime is ridiculous. From 1925 to 1929, Russell wrote four books on family and marriage issues for general readers, namely "My Faith", "Education and a Happy Life", "Marriage and Morality", and "Education and the Modern World". 》. In the book, Russell cleverly and objectively comments on a series of problems in modern marriage life, and finally suggests that "trial marriage" may reduce the current increasing divorce rate.
Russell’s concept of marriage and family has aroused unanimous opposition from conservative forces in society. The Archbishop of New York, the Brooklyn Catholic Church, fanatical religious organizations, many patriotic groups, local leaders of the Democratic Party and major newspapers have all become traditional As a defender of morality, Russell became the target of their joint attacks.
This world-renowned scholar was bombarded with abuse, insults, and personal attacks. "Moral depravity", "heretic professor", "depraved, heinous, perfidious, advocate of sexual hybridization", "the root of evil", "cancer of sexual liberation", etc., became Russell's nicknames for a while . Finally, Russell's views are without exception said to be "pro-Communist".
A Brooklyn woman, fearing that her underage daughter would become a student of Russell's, accused him of not only moral corruption but also paganism, and demanded that he be disqualified from teaching at the City University of New York. The lady's lawyer used vicious words to slander Russell and filed a lawsuit in court. Russell escaped a humiliating court case because the nature of the prosecution was unclear. However, the judge who accepted the case blatantly violated the principle of fairness and decided to conduct a retrial. Instigated by lawyers, the judge clearly favored the plaintiff and public opinion. The court's actions demonstrate the extent to which U.S. courts are manipulated by politics. (The judge was criticized by the legal community for his excessively explicit behavior. The article "The Whole Case of Bertrand Russell" published in 1971 analyzed this incident in detail.)
Re The trial was a mere formality. The judge did not allow Russell to defend himself, presented unconfirmed facts, refused to discuss the "pornographic" descriptions in Russell's book, attacked the defendant's character, and used moral principles as the basis for the trial.
The judge announced that Russell was disqualified from teaching at New York University based on a rule applicable to elementary and secondary schools, and prevented Russell's lawyers from holding hearings and filing an appeal, arbitrarily declaring that Russell was not eligible to enjoy this right.
Vicious attacks and slanders by conservative forces failed to defeat Russell. Although he did not go to the City University of New York, Harvard University sent him a letter of appointment. In 1950, the Swiss Academic Council voted to award Russell the Nobel Prize for Literature that year.
5. Critics’ reaction to Bertrand Arthur William Russell’s winning of the Nobel Prize:
On November 10, 1950, when Russell learned that he had won the Nobel Prize, When the news of the Bell Prize came out, he was preparing to give a lecture entitled "Minds and Objects" at Princeton University. There were many famous scholars in the audience, including Albert Einstein. His speech received lasting applause. Russell commented at the time: "I am delighted to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature. It is one of the two highest honors I have received, the other being the Order of the British Empire."
In a sense, Russell Had to share people's attention with William Faulkner. Due to the postponement of the award in 1949, the notice that Faulkner won the 1949 Nobel Prize in Literature was sent out at the same time as Russell. Moreover, 1950 was a special year, the fiftieth anniversary of the establishment of the Nobel Prize in Literature. The Swedish Academy chose a writer who had never published a poem or a literary work, by equating Nobel's belief with Russell's rationalism and liberalism to commemorate Alfred Nobel.
The Swedish Academy's choice of Russell and Faulkner has been well-received despite the obvious oddity of a Nobel Prize winner who is best known as a mathematician. . An editorial in the New York Times (November 11, 1950) called Faulkner and Russell a strange "Nobel partnership," but Russell was a "truly open-minded man" who deserved the prize for his "History of Western Philosophy" ” is a “fascinating” work. Time magazine's review found this fitting, noting: "He writes, sometimes sharply and often, about morality, politics, China, marriage, atoms, Bolshevism, and world politics."
Russell might have easily won the Nobel Prize for Literature, not only because of his liberalism but also because of his special reputation as a stylist who presented his non-specialized work as suitable for the general public. Written for thoughtful, understanding readers, not for out-of-touch clergy. Aldous Huxley praised Russell for avoiding "stylistic inhibitions"—rather than expressing his obscure ideas in an incomprehensible monkish style.
The news of Russell's award brought him great prestige, allowing him to continue his lecture tour in November 1950. After Princeton, he went to New York to lecture on "The Impact of Science on Society" at Columbia University. As a philosopher, he attracted a large audience. Juliet Medlock, a well-versed literary agent, was chosen as a guide to take Russell on a trip around New York City. The report said, “People stood on both sides of the street on three levels inside and four outside, hoping that a miracle would happen and they could squeeze in, or at least hear the sound of him talking with a pipe in his mouth, or catch a glimpse of Sir Russell. ".