The "two rivers" in the name refer to the Tigris River and the Euphrates River. This land is called "Al-Jazirah" by Arabs and is called fertile land surrounded by water. The term "fertile crescent moon" was coined by the Egyptian scientist JH bould (L. 1865- 1935) in 19 16. It is used to describe the northern end of the Persian Gulf and is related to the Garden of Eden in the Bible.
Mesopotamia is the birthplace of many different civilizations spanning thousands of years and has made great contributions to world culture and progress. Today, many aspects of daily life are taken for granted, such as words, wheels, laws and regulations, sailing, the concept of 24-hour system, beer brewing, civil rights and crop irrigation. All these were originally developed on the land between the two rivers, which is the birthplace of the great Mesopotamian civilization.
cradle of civilization
Unlike the more unified civilizations of Egypt or Greece, Mesopotamia is a collection of cultures, and their only real connection is their writing, their gods and their attitude towards women. For example, the social customs, laws and even languages of Sumerians are different from those of Akkadian period, so it cannot be assumed that they correspond to Babylonian civilization; However, women's rights (in some periods), the importance of literacy and gods do seem to be enjoyed throughout the region, although gods have different names in different regions and periods.
Therefore, Mesopotamia should be more properly understood as a region that produced many empires and civilizations, rather than any single civilization. Even so, Mesopotamia is still called the "cradle of civilization", mainly because of two developments in Sumer in the 4th century BC:
Today's recognized rise of cities.
The invention of writing (although writing also knows that Egypt was made in the Indus Valley, China and Central America).
The invention of the wheel was also attributed to Mesopotamia. In A.D. 1922, archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley discovered "the remains of two wagons, the oldest wheeled vehicle in history was found [in the ruins of the ancient city of Ur], together with their leather tires" (Beltermann, 35 years old). Other important developments or inventions attributed to Mesopotamia include, but are not limited to, animal domestication, agriculture and irrigation, universal tools, sophisticated weapons and wars, chariots, wine, beer, dividing time into hours, minutes and seconds, religious ceremonies, sails (sailboats) and laws and regulations. In fact, Samuel Noah Kramer, an orientalist, listed 39 "firsts" in human civilization that originated in Sumer. These include:
The first school, the first apple-wiping case, the first juvenile delinquent, the first "nerve war", the first bicameral parliament, the first historian, the first tax reduction, the first "Moses", the first legal precedent, the first pharmacopoeia, the first farmer's yearbook, the first shade tree gardening experiment, the first cosmogenetics and human beings. George, the first literary borrowing case, the first heroic age of mankind, the first love song, the first library catalogue, the first golden age of mankind, the first "morbid" society, the first ceremonial lamentation, the first messiah, the first long-distance running champion, the first literary image, the first sexual symbol, the first virgin, the first lullaby,
/kloc-archaeological excavations in the 1980 s revealed the human settlements in Mesopotamia in BC 10000, indicating that the fertile land between the two rivers allowed ancient hunter-gatherers to settle in this land, domesticate animals and turn their attention to the development of agriculture and irrigation. Trade followed closely, and with prosperity came urbanization and the birth of cities. It is generally believed that writing was invented for the needs of trade, long-distance communication and more careful recording of accounts.
Among the gods in Mesopotamia, there are more than 1 1,000 gods.
Learning and religion
Mesopotamia was called an academic institution in ancient times, and it is believed that Thales of Miletus (known as the "first philosopher" in 585 BC) studied there. Because the Babylonians thought that water was the "first principle" of the flow of all things, and Thales was also famous for this idea, it seems that he may have studied this aspect.
Mesopotamia attached great importance to the pursuit of intelligence. It is said that there are as many schools (mainly devoted to priests) as temples, teaching reading, writing, religion, law, medicine and astrology. There are more than 65,438+0,000 gods in the pantheon of gods in Mesopotamia, and there are many stories about gods (including the myth of creation and Enuma Elish). It is generally believed that biblical stories such as the fall of mankind and the great flood (and many other stories) originated from Mesopotamian legends, because they first appeared in Mesopotamian works, such as the world's oldest written stories Adapa myth and Gilgamesh epic. Mesopotamia believed that they were collaborators of the gods, and this land was full of gods and demons (although "demons" should not be understood in the sense of modern Christianity).
They believe that the beginning of the world is the victory of the gods over the chaotic forces, but even if the gods win, it does not mean that chaos will not come again. Through daily rituals, care for God, proper funeral customs and simple civic duties, people in Mesopotamia felt that they helped to maintain the balance of the world and kept the forces of chaos and destruction out. China people should not only honor their elders, treat people well, but also offer sacrifices to the gods through their daily work.
location
Both men and women worked, "because ancient Mesopotamia was basically an agricultural society, and its main occupations were planting crops and raising livestock" (Bertman, 274). Other occupations include scribe, therapist, craftsman, weaver, Potter, shoemaker, fisherman, teacher, priest or priestess. Bertman wrote:
The leaders of society are kings and priests, who are served by the staff of palaces and temples with large populations. With the establishment of the standing army and the expansion of imperialism, officers and professional soldiers occupied a place in the expanding and diversified labor force in Mesopotamia. (274)
Women have almost equal rights in owning land, filing for divorce, owning their own businesses and signing trade contracts. Contracts, business arrangements and letters are written in cuneiform on clay tablets and signed by a person's cylindrical seal, which is a person's identification. After the writing board is dried, it is sometimes put in a clay envelope and sealed again, so that only the recipient can read the letter or contract. Cuneiform was used to write Semitic languages, such as Babylonian or other Sumerian languages, and it was used until it was replaced by alphabetic writing. Receipts of goods received are also written on cuneiform boards (everything is like this, including documents), which are much longer than documents written on papyrus or paper.
The earliest beer receipt in the world came from Mesopotamia, which was called Alulu receipt (2050 BC) and was written in Ur script. Early beer and wine brewers and community therapists were originally women. These industries later seemed to be taken over by men because they were obviously profitable occupations. However, what a person does is never a simple "work", but a person's contribution to the community, and by extension, to the efforts made by the gods to maintain world peace and harmony.
Architecture and government
This temple is located in the center of every city (called ziggurat, a stepped pyramid structure originated in this area), which symbolizes the importance of the patron saint of this city, and any community hosted by this city will worship him. Every city has its own pyramid (larger cities, more than one) to commemorate their patron saint. Mesopotamia gave birth to the world's first cities mainly made of dried bricks. In the words of Bertman:
Family buildings in Mesopotamia grew out of the soil in which they lived. Unlike Egypt, Mesopotamia-especially in the south-can mine buildings. The land is also short of wood, so people "turn to other natural resources that are abundant at hand: the soil on the river bank and rushes and reeds growing in swamps." Mesopotamia used them to create the world's first column, arch and roof structure. (285)
Simple houses are tied together with reeds and inserted into the ground, while more complicated houses are made of dry clay bricks (later adopted by Egyptians). City and temple buildings and their famous golden pagodas are made of clay bricks baked in an oven and then colored.
Before the concept of king appeared, it was thought that priests and rulers made laws according to religious precepts.
Gods are considered to exist in the planning and implementation of any construction project, and it is considered very important to pray and recite to the appropriate gods in a fixed order for the success of the project and the prosperity of residents. Go home.
No matter which kingdom or empire ruled Mesopotamia, no matter which historical period, the important role of gods in people's lives has not diminished. This reverence for God is a characteristic of the life of field workers and kings. Historian Helen Chapin Mace wrote:
The instability in southern Mesopotamia led to a highly developed religious consciousness. Even before the rise of Sumer, cult centers like Elidu can be traced back to 5000 BC, and they are important pilgrimage and dedication centers. Many of the most important Mesopotamian cities appeared around the former Sumerian worship center, thus strengthening the close relationship between religion and government. (2)
The role of king was established sometime after 3600 BC. Different from the previous priest rulers, the king directly dealt with the people and made clear his wishes through his own laws. Before the concept of king appeared, people thought that priests and rulers made laws according to religious precepts and obtained sacred information through signs and omens; While still respecting and appeasing the gods, the king is considered as a strong enough representative of these gods to express their wishes through his own orders and his own voice.
This is most obvious in the famous Babylonian code code of hammurabi (BC 1792- 1750), but in the history of Mesopotamia, rulers who claimed to be in direct contact with God were very common, especially in the Akkadian king Narasin (BC 1792). 22665438 BC+0-2224 BC) He even claimed that he was the incarnation of God. The king is responsible for the welfare of his people. A good king who rules according to God's will is recognized by the prosperity of the region he rules.
Nevertheless, even a very efficient ruler, such as sargon of Akkad (2334-2279 BC), had to deal with the permanent uprising and rebellion of factions or the whole region in order to compete for his legitimacy. Because Mesopotamia is a vast country with so many different cultures and races, a single ruler who tries to enforce the laws of the central government will always be resisted by some parties.
The history of Mesopotamia
It is easiest to understand that the history of this area and the development of prosperity and civilization are divided into several periods:
Pottery before Neolithic Age
Also known as the Stone Age (about 10000 BC, but there is evidence that people lived much earlier). Archaeology has confirmed the early signs of wars between primitive settlements and tribes, most likely fertile crops and livestock fields. During this period, with the transformation of hunting and gathering culture to agricultural culture, animal husbandry has been practiced more and more. Nevertheless, the historian Mark van de Miyelupe pointed out:
The transition from hunting to agriculture is not sudden, but a slow process. In this process, people have increased their dependence on the resources they directly manage, but they still supplement their diet by hunting wild animals. Agriculture has increased people's continuous settlement. ( 12)
With the development of more and more settlements, building development has gradually become more complicated in building permanent houses.
Tao Neolithic age
During this period, tools and pots were widely used, and a specific culture began to appear in the new moon. Scholar Stephen Bertman wrote, "In this era, the only advanced technology is' cutting edge'", because stone tools and weapons are becoming more and more complex. Bertman further pointed out that "the Neolithic economy was mainly based on food production in agriculture and animal husbandry" (55), and it was more settled, while the Stone Age communities were more mobile. With the appearance of permanent settlements, the progress of architecture naturally follows, as does the development of ceramics and stone tools manufacturing.
Bronze Age (5900-3200 BC)
Because of the transition from stone tools and weapons to copper tools and weapons, it is also called the Bronze Stone Age. This era includes the so-called Ubaid period (about 5000-4 100 BC, named after Tell al-`Ubaid, which is the place where the most cultural relics are found in Iraq), during which the first temple in Mesopotamia was built and villages without walls developed from sporadic single houses. These villages subsequently triggered the urbanization process during the Uruk period (4 100-2900 BC), especially in Sumer, including Eredu, uruk, Ur, Kish, Nuz, lagache, Nipur and Ngirsu, as well as in Elam and its Susa city.
The earliest cities are usually called uruk, although some people suggested Elidu and Ur. Van De Mieroop wrote, "Mesopotamia was the most urbanized area in the ancient world" (quoted from Bertman, 20 1). Cities developed along the Tigris River and the Euphrates River, as well as those built in further places, have established systematic trade and brought great prosperity.
This period witnessed the Sumerians' invention of the wheel (3500 BC) and writing (3000 BC), the establishment of kingship to replace the rule of priests, and the first war between Sumerians and Elamites (2700 BC) in the world. Sumerians are the winners. In the early dynasty (2900-2334 BC), all the progress made in the Uruk period was developed, and the city and the whole government tended to be stable.
The area is becoming more and more prosperous, with gorgeous temples and statues, exquisite pottery and figurines, children's toys (including girls' dolls and boys' wheelbarrows) and personal seals (called cylindrical seals) to express property ownership and sign on behalf of individuals. Cylindrical seals can be compared with modern identity cards or driver's licenses. In fact, the loss or theft of seals is as serious as modern identity theft or credit card loss.
Early Bronze Age (3000-265438 BC+065438 BC+09 BC)
During this period, bronze replaced copper and became the material for making tools and weapons. The rise of the polis laid the foundation for economic and political stability, which eventually led to the rise of Akkad Kingdom (2334-22 BC18 BC), and it was also the center of the rapid development of Akkad and Mali, the two most prosperous cities. The cultural stability required for artistic creation in this area has led to more complex architectural and sculpture designs, as well as the following inventions or improvements:
Many specific and important inventions, such as plows and wheels, chariots and sailboats, and cylindrical seals, are the only and most unique art forms in ancient Mesopotamia, which generally prove the importance of property ownership and commerce in the daily life of the country. (Portman, 55-56 years old)
Sargon the Great of Akkadian Kingdom is the first multi-ethnic kingdom in the world. She is sargon's daughter Nduana (l.2285-2250 BCE) and was named as the first author of literary works. There are more than 20,000 cuneiform movies (books) in Mali's library, and the palaces there are considered to be one of the best in the region.
King Hammurabi of Babylon (1792- 1750 BC) rose from obscurity, conquered this area and ruled it for 43 years.
Middle Bronze Age (2 1 19- 1700 BC)
The expansion of the Assyrian kingdom (Assour, Nimrud, Sharukin, Toure and Nineveh) and the rise of the Babylonian dynasty (centered on Babylon and Chaldea) created an atmosphere conducive to trade, thus intensifying the war. The Guti tribe is a fierce nomadic people. They successfully overthrew the Akkadian kingdom and ruled the politics of Mesopotamia until they were defeated by the allied forces of King Sumer.
King Hammurabi of Babylon rose from relative obscurity, conquered this area and ruled for 43 years. Among his many achievements, including the famous code engraved on the tablet. Babylon became the main center for the pursuit of intellectual, artistic and literary achievements. However, this cultural center didn't last long. It was looted by Hittites, and then it was inherited by Cassiter.
Late Bronze Age (BC 1700- 1 100)
The rise of the Kasti Dynasty (a tribe from northern zagros mountains, considered to have originated in modern Iran) led to the transfer of power and the cultural and academic expansion after the Kasti conquered Babylon. As people discovered how to mine ore and use iron, the bronze age collapsed, and Kasite and Hittites used this technology earlier, especially in war.
This period also witnessed the decline of Babylonian culture due to the rising power of the Castians, until it was defeated and expelled by the Elamites. After Elam gave way to Aram, the small Assyrian kingdom began a series of successful battles. The Assyrian Empire was firmly established and prospered under the rule of Tigra Bereser I (reigned in115-1076 BC), and ashur Nasher Parr II (R.884) was established after him. After the collapse of the Bronze Age, most Mesopotamian countries were either destroyed or weakened. 1250-C.1150 BC led to a short "dark age".
The Iron Age (BC1000–500)
This era witnessed the rise and expansion of the new Assyrian Empire under the rule of Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 BC). Under the rule of great Assyrian kings such as Sargon II (722 BC), the empire rose rapidly and conquered-705 BC), Sena Helib (705-68 BC1year) and Sakhadon (705 BC). Due to the repeated attacks on central cities by Babylonians, Medes and Skettians in 6 12 BC, the decline of the empire was as rapid as its rise.
Hittites and Mitanni tribes consolidated their respective powers during this period, which led to the rise of the new Hittites and the new Babylonian Empire. King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (reigned 605/604-562 BC) destroyed Jerusalem (588 BC) during this period and forced Israeli residents into "exile in Babylon". He was also responsible for the large-scale construction of Babylon, building famous buildings, such as the Istanbul Gate and the Great Golden Pagoda ("Babel"). In 539 BC, Babylon fell into the hands of cyrus the great (the great, 550-530 BC), effectively ending Babylonian culture.
After Cyrus II occupied Babylon, most of Mesopotamia became part of the Persian Empire & witnessing the decline of a rapid culture.
Classical ancient times (500 BC-7th century AD)
After Cyrus II occupied Babylon, most of Mesopotamia became a part of Achaemenid Persian Empire. During this period, the culture of this area has undergone rapid changes, including some changes, the most obvious of which is the loss of cuneiform knowledge. The conquest of Persians by Alexander the Great in 33 1 BC brought about the Hellenization of culture and religion, but although Alexander tried to make Babylon an important city again, its modern people have passed.
After his death, Alexander's general Seleucus I Nicato I (reigned in 305-28 BC1year) took control of this area and established Seleucus Empire (3 12-63 BC) until the land was conquered by the Parthians in 63 BC. Then it was ruled by the Sassanians who established the Sassanian Empire (AD 224-65 1). Sassanians respect the heritage of early Mesopotamian civilization and keep their contributions.
Between the Parthian Empire (247 BC-224 AD) and the Sassanian Dynasty, the Roman Empire established its own position in this region in BC 10. In 198, (although Rome arrived earlier in116-117, it was withdrawn). By introducing better roads and pipelines, the Romans significantly improved the infrastructure of their colonies and brought Roman law to this land. Even so, the region is constantly involved in various wars launched by the Roman emperor to control the land, first with the Parthians, and then with the Sassanians.
The ancient culture preserved by Sassanians in this area was destroyed by the conquest of Mesopotamia by Muslim Arabs in the 7th century, which led to the unification of Islam in law, language, religion and culture. All aspects of culture have survived, but as Beltermann pointed out, "with the Islamic conquest in 65 1 year, the history of ancient Mesopotamia ended" (58). Nowadays, the big cities that once rose along the Tigris River and Euphrates River are mostly mounds or broken bricks excavated from the arid plains, while the crescent land area is due to human factors (such as excessive land use, agricultural pursuit or urban development) and climate change.
heritage
The tradition of Mesopotamia continues to this day through many basic aspects of modern life, such as 60 seconds and 60 minutes. Helen Chapin Mays wrote,
Because the well-being of the community depends on the close observation of natural phenomena, scientific or primitive scientific activities occupy most of the pastor's time. For example, Sumerians believed that every god was represented by a number. The number 60 used to soothe nerves is their basic unit of calculation. Minutes in an hour and symbolic degrees of a circle are Sumerian concepts. Highly developed agricultural system and perfect irrigation and water control system enabled Sumer to realize overproduction and also led to the development of big cities. (4)
Urbanization, wheels, writing, astronomy, mathematics, wind power, irrigation, agricultural development, animal husbandry and the narrative that was eventually rewritten into the Hebrew Bible and provided the basis for the Christian Old Testament all came from Mesopotamia.
As mentioned above, Kramer listed 39 firsts in Mesopotamia in his book History Begins in Sumer. However, despite these first impressions, Mesopotamia's contribution to world culture did not end there. Mesopotamia influenced the cultures of Egypt and Greece through long-distance trade and cultural exchanges, and influenced Roman culture through these cultures, setting a standard for the development and spread of western civilization. Generally speaking, Mesopotamia, especially Sumer, provided some of the most lasting cultural aspects for the world. Although cities and magnificent palaces have long since ceased to exist, this legacy has continued into the modern era.
In the19th century, archaeologists of different nationalities came to Mesopotamia to dig up evidence to confirm the Old Testament stories. At that time, the Bible was regarded as the oldest book in the world, and the stories on the pages were regarded as the original works. Once the ancient clay tablets were discovered, archaeologists looking for physical evidence to support biblical stories found the opposite. It is understood that the marks on them are not designs, but a form of writing.
These cuneiform tablets were deciphered by scholar and translator george smith in 1872 (1840- 1876), which opened the door of ancient Mesopotamian civilization to the modern world. The story of the Great Flood and Noah's Ark, the story of human depravity, the concept of Eden, and even Job's complaints were written centuries before the Mesopotamian Bible text.
Once cuneiform can be read, the ancient world of Mesopotamia opened its doors to the modern world, changing people's understanding of world history and themselves. The discovery of Sumerian civilization and the story of cuneiform clay tablets encouraged the new freedom to explore knowledge in all fields of knowledge. Now I understand that biblical narrative is not an original work in Hebrew, and the world is obviously older than the church claims. Some civilizations rise and fall before anyone else. If church and school authorities put forward these ideas, it may be the same for others.
When Smith deciphered cuneiform, the spirit of inquiry in the late19th century began to challenge the accepted thinking paradigm, but the discovery of Mesopotamian culture and religion further encouraged this. In ancient times, Mesopotamia influenced the world through its inventions, innovations and religious visions. In modern times, it literally changed people's understanding of the whole history and a person's position in the story of the continuous development of human civilization.