Political reform in Li Kui
Li Kui's political reform refers to the appointment of Li Kui as prime minister to carry out political reform during the Warring States Period when Wei Wenhou of Wei was in power. Politically, Li Kui advocated abolishing hereditary aristocratic privileges, selecting and appointing talents and strictly rewarding and punishing them. Economically, the method of making full use of soil and leveling land is mainly implemented. It greatly promoted the development of Wei's agricultural production and made Wei rich and strong. In order to further carry out the reform, consolidate the reform results, collect the criminal codes of various countries, write a book "Legal Classics", affirm and protect the reform in the form of law, and fix the feudal legal rights. Wei's political reform was the beginning of China's political reform, which had a far-reaching influence in the history of China. At that time, it was a great shock to other countries, which triggered the first vigorous national reform in China's history and paved the way for the transition from slavery to feudalism. Later, the famous Shang Yang political reform and Wuqi political reform were influenced by Li Kui's political reform.
Significance and influence:
The political reform not only made Wei prosperous and strong rapidly, but also had great significance in the history of China. Since Li Kui, the political, legal, military, economic and cultural innovations in the Warring States period have gradually entered a deeper and broader level, that is, the transformation of the entire social structure and system. Thus, Chinese civilization has entered a broader and deeper stage.
Evaluation:
Li Kui's political reform was the first successful political reform in the history of feudal society in China. Its content has important social and historical significance, and its success also has profound reasons. Li Jue's political reform not only opened the prelude to the political reform movement in the Warring States Period, but also established the private ownership of land and the individual small-scale peasant economic system in Wei State, which was the symbol of the formal establishment of the feudal system in China history.
Wuqi reform:
Wuqi Reform was a political reform movement in which Wuqi (440 BC-3,865,438 BC+0 BC) was appointed as Lingyin to carry out political, legal and military reforms in Chu State when Morun, the king of Chu, was in power in the early Warring States. In 38 1 year BC, king Moran of Chu died, and the reform was strongly opposed by the old nobles and ended in failure. However, after the political reform, the national strength of Chu was strong, and in 38 BC1year, Zhao was defeated by Wei.
Impact and significance:
Wuqi reform aimed at enriching the soldiers. The appointment of talents has dealt a blow to big noble's vested political and economic interests and met with strong opposition from big noble. This is a movement against the political and economic privileges of hereditary aristocrats.
The political reform in Wuqi made Chu strong, attacked Baiyue in the south, and expanded Chu's territory to Dongting Lake and Cangwu County. 38 1 years ago, Chu sent troops to help Zhao, and fought Wei Jun in the west of the state. The Chu army crossed Liangmen, stationed in the forest and drank horses in the Yellow River, cutting off the connection between Hanoi County of Wei State and Anyi, the capital city. With the help of Chu's offensive, Zhao captured chiping and conquered Huangcheng. Chu and Zhao defeated Wei Jun.
The reform in Wuqi promoted the change from aristocratic politics to bureaucratic politics in Chu. It also influenced Shang Yang's political reform in Qin State.
Zou Ji's reform:
Qi Weiwang and Zou Ji carried out political reform, accepted the opinions of liegeman, paid attention to selecting talents, eliminated incompetent traitors and rewarded competent generals and officials. Their purpose is to consolidate the ruling order and seek the prosperity of the country, which is naturally conducive to the development of social production. Therefore, after some reforms, Qi has a new atmosphere in politics and economy.
Impact:
Thanks to the political reform, centralized monarchy and the rule of law, Qi gradually became stronger. In 353 BC, Wei was defeated by Guiling for the first time, and in 343 BC, Wei was defeated by Maling. "Therefore, the State of Qi is stronger than the ministers, claiming that the King of Qi ruled the world" (Historical Records Tian Benjia End).
Shen Buhai's political reform:
Shen Buhai reform is the reform of Shen Buhai, a legalist figure in the Warring States Period. In addition to emphasizing the rule of law like other legalists, Shen Buhai mainly emphasized the "technique" of monarchy, that is, the method of appointing, supervising and assessing subordinates. He believes that when appointing officials, the monarch should examine whether they are worthy of the name, whether they are competent in their work, whether their words and deeds are consistent, and whether they are loyal to the monarch, and then they should be promoted or demoted according to what they have learned. The proposal of "technique" is of great significance to the establishment of the examination system for the appointment and removal of officials at that time. Political reform has stabilized the domestic political situation in South Korea, restricted aristocratic privileges and enriched people's lives.
Shang Yang's reform:
During the Warring States Period, Qin Xiaogong, king of Qin, was determined to reform and recruit talents. From Wei to Qin, Shang Yang put forward a set of reform and innovation development strategies, such as abandoning ore fields, emphasizing agriculture and mulberry, rewarding meritorious military service, implementing unified quantity and establishing county system, which won the trust of others and made it a long-term leader. In 356 BC and 350 BC, "abandoning mining fields, building buildings, implementing county system, rewarding farmers and practicing sitting method" were implemented twice.
Impact and significance:
Shang Yang's political reform was a successful political reform in ancient China, which made A Qin a powerful country, laid the foundation for the unification of the six countries in the future, and determined the idea of rule of law. Shang Yang absorbed the experience of Li Kui, Wuqi and other Wei Chu legalists, and combined with the specific situation of Qin State, further developed the legalist policy, and then came from behind, and the reform achieved great results. He further broke the well field system, expanded the mu system, emphasized agriculture and restrained commerce, rewarded the production of male ploughing and female weaving, encouraged reclamation, and promoted the development of small-scale peasant economy in Qin State. He generally carried out the county system, enacted laws, established the unified measurement system, and established a centralized monarchy. He banned private fighting, rewarded meritorious military service, and formulated a system of 20 ranks, which was conducive to strengthening the combat effectiveness of the army. He cracked down on the old aristocrats who opposed the political reform, and "burned poetry and books to understand the law", which enabled the political reform to be implemented. Because of all this, Qin became rich and strong rapidly, which laid the foundation for the unification of China. As Wang Chong said in the Han Dynasty, "Shang Yang was filial to the public and opened the imperial business for Qin." ("Lun Heng Shu Jie")
After Shang Yang's political reform, Qin changed the old relations of production economically, abandoned mines and reclaimed land, and fundamentally established private ownership of land. Politically, the old patriarchal clan system was impacted and disintegrated, the feudal state mechanism was more perfect, and the centralized construction began. Militarily, rewarding the meritorious military service achieved Qiang Bing's goal, greatly improved the combat effectiveness of the army, and developed into the most powerful feudal country at the end of the Warring States Period, which created favorable conditions for the next strategic development of Qin State and laid the foundation for unifying the whole country.
Shang Yang's political reform had a far-reaching impact on the post-Qin State and the Qin Dynasty. The Qin law unearthed in Yunmeng was revised, supplemented and accumulated on the basis of this reform. The method of sitting together is also discussed in many places in Qin Law. For example, if the household registration is hidden or false, not only the township officials will be punished, but also every household who is "Wu" will be punished with a shield and "everyone will move" (that is, guarding the border will be punished). "Qin Law" also puts the suppression of "thieves" in the first place, and uses heavy punishment for minor crimes. For example, those who steal one or two hundred dollars should be "removed", those who steal more than two hundred and twenty dollars and those who steal more than six hundred and sixty dollars should be punished as crimes respectively, those who steal cattle should be punished as crimes, and those who steal sheep or pigs should also be severely punished. Even those who steal someone else's mulberry leaves for less than a dollar will be punished for 30 days. For "thieves" with more than five people, the punishment is more severe. At the same time, there are many provisions on the punishment of various fugitives in the Qin Law.
Emperor Wu of song reform:
Emperor Wu of song's political and economic rectification further dealt a blow to the decadent and dark nobles and aristocratic forces, improved the political and social situation, and alleviated the suffering of the working people. It laid a solid political foundation for "the rule of Yuanjia" and also laid the embryonic form of politics in the Southern Dynasties.
Impact and significance:
Although Liu Yu-Ben is a professional traveler with little education, he attaches great importance to education. In the first month of the third year of Yongzheng (422), the following imperial edict was issued: "The founding of the country in ancient times, teaching first, and the wind trained the world, nothing more than this; It's salty when you're confused. Therefore, since he became king, in modern times, he has been advocating learning art and establishing preface. From the past, I was in the suburbs, and the flag was rolling, so I didn't have time to give it. So the school is deserted, and insults are endless. The army will get older and older, and the temptation of training will fall. Later generations are afraid of the wall and always sigh. This "national style" is so eternal, and "Xiaoya" is so nostalgic. Today, Lue Wang is far away, the territory of China is clear, and the lookout looks forward to it. Cheap, Tao prize, selection of Confucian officials, Hong Zhen. The master carefully examines the old classics and implements them in time "("Song Shu? "The Legend of Emperor Wu"). Thereby consolidating the rule of the Song State and improving the social atmosphere. He was an emperor in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Southern and Northern Dynasties, with outstanding achievements. The reform he carried out promoted social progress and historical development. Since then, many politicians have appeared in the Southern Dynasties, such as Song Wendi, Emperor Gaudi of Qi, Liang Wudi and Chen Wudi. But it is not difficult to find that their reform measures basically followed the reform of Emperor Wu of Song.
Emperor Wu of song's political and economic rectification further dealt a blow to the decadent and dark nobles and aristocratic forces, improved the political and social situation, and alleviated the suffering of the working people. It laid a solid political foundation for "the rule of Yuanjia" and also laid the embryonic form of politics in the Southern Dynasties.
Wang Anshi's political reform:
Wang Anshi's political reform was a social reform movement initiated by Wang Anshi in Song Shenzong period, aiming at changing the situation of poverty and weakness since the founding of the Northern Song Dynasty. The reform began in the second year of Xining (1069) and ended in the eighth year of Yuanfeng when Song Shenzong died (1085), so it is also called Xining reform and Xifeng reform.
Wang Anshi's political reform aimed at developing production, enriching Qiang Bing and saving the political crisis in the Song Dynasty, with "financial management" and "army consolidation" as the core, involving political, economic, military, social and cultural aspects. It is another massive social reform movement in the ancient history of China after Shang Yang's political reform. To a certain extent, the political reform changed the situation of poverty and weakness in the Northern Song Dynasty, enriched the government's finances, improved the national defense strength, and also cracked down and restricted the illegal profits of the feudal landlord class and big businessmen. However, in the process of carrying out the reform, due to untimely measures and improper operation in actual implementation, the people's interests have also been damaged to varying degrees (such as the Law on Protecting Horses and the Law on Young Crops), and the new law touches the fundamental interests of the big landlords, so it has been strongly opposed by them. The eighth year of Yuanfeng (1085) ended with the death of Song Shenzong.
Impact:
The fundamental purpose of Wang Anshi's political reform is to change the situation of poverty and weakness in the Northern Song Dynasty, enhance the ability of external defense and internal pressure, and consolidate and strengthen feudal rule. It is nearly fifteen years from the second implementation of the new law to the abolition of the old school. In these fifteen years, after the implementation of each new law, although there are inevitably some drawbacks, they can basically achieve some results, and the effect of "enriching Qiang Bing" is very remarkable.
Changes in poverty situation
The government's fiscal revenue has increased substantially. Through the implementation of a series of new fiscal management laws, the state has increased new fiscal revenue items such as "young crops money", "idle surplus money" and "easy money in the city". On the basis of developing production and sharing taxes, the fiscal revenue has increased substantially and the national treasury is abundant. During the period of Song Shenzong, the surplus of the national treasury could provide the court with 20 years' financial expenditure. The rapid increase of fiscal revenue completely changed the situation of "poor and weak" in the Northern Song Dynasty.
The new law suppressed the merger power of powerful landlords to a certain extent, and the young crop law replaced the usury of dominant households, limiting the exploitation of farmers by usury; The average land tax law limits the hidden tax evasion of bureaucratic landlords, and the market change law nationalizes part of the commercial profits monopolized by big businessmen, which has cracked down on the manipulation of the market by big businessmen. The implementation of the monopoly exemption law has reduced the tax exploitation suffered by farmers and vigorously built farmland water conservancy projects, which has played a huge role in the development of agricultural production and social and economic development, reduced the burden on the people and presented a once-in-a-century prosperity.
Improvement of weak situation
Changing the phenomenon of "poverty and weakness" is the general policy of Wang Anshi's political reform, and enriching the country and strengthening the people is the general purpose of the political reform. Through the implementation of the Law on Strengthening the Military, the weak situation was alleviated and the national strength of the Northern Song Dynasty was enhanced. The implementation of Jiabao Law strengthened the feudal ruling order in rural areas, maintained the social order in rural areas, established the national military reserve, and saved a lot of training expenses. Cutting the art of war has improved the quality of military soldiers; The discussion of Sun Tzu's Art of War has improved the quality of military soldiers, changed the situation of dividing soldiers into generals and enhanced the combat effectiveness of the army. The Law on the Protection of Horses has greatly improved the quality and quantity of horses, and at the same time, the government has saved a lot of expenses for raising horses. The Military Equipment Supervision Law has increased the production and quality of weapons.
Qiang Bing's political reform measures reversed the passive situation of northwest frontier defense. In the sixth year of Xining in the Northern Song Dynasty (1073), under the command of Wang Anshi, Wang Shao, the military envoy of Song Xihe Road, led an army to attack Tubo and recapture five states, including Hehe, Taohe and Min, which lasted for more than 2,000 miles and benefited 300,000 Qiang people. This was an unprecedented military victory in the Northern Song Dynasty, and it also established a favorable front for attacking Xixia.
1898 reform movement:
The Reform Movement of 1898, also known as the Reform Movement of 1898, refers to the bourgeois reformists with Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao as the main leaders who advocated learning from the West, advocating science and culture, reforming the political and educational systems, and developing the reform movement of agriculture, industry and commerce through Emperor Guangxu from June 65438 to September 2000. However, the Reform Movement of 1898 was strongly resisted and opposed because it harmed the interests of the old school headed by Empress Dowager Cixi. 2 1, in September, 65438, Empress Dowager Cixi and others staged a 1898 coup, and Emperor Guangxu was imprisoned in Yingtai, Zhongnanhai. The reformists Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao fled to France, Japan, Tan Sitong,,, and Yang respectively.
Impact:
Although the Reform Movement of 1898 failed, after the coup in 1898, Emperor Guangxu was placed under house arrest by Cixi in Yingtai, Nanhai, which was surrounded by water on three sides. Kang Youwei fled to Hong Kong and then moved to Canada. 1On July 20th, 899, he organized a royalist society, also known as the China Reform Society, to praise Emperor Guangxu and advocate constitutional monarchy, while Liang Qichao fled to Japan and founded the Qing Yi Bao, which humiliated Empress Dowager Cixi.
When Kang Liang and his wife fled, the news that Kang Youwei poisoned Emperor Guangxu came from the palace. Later, it was said that Guangxu was ill for a long time and was scolded by the Queen Mother. There is a lot of discussion among the people, and it is widely rumored at home and abroad that Emperor Guangxu is no longer alive. Liu Kunyi, governor of the two rivers, warned: "People are in danger and fear, and neighbors will inevitably borrow soldiers." Claude Maxwell MacDonald, then British envoy to China, also said that if Emperor Guangxu died, it would be unforgivable for all countries. As a result, ouchi allowed doctors from the French embassy to enter the palace to treat Guangxu, and nothing happened.
Conservative ministers, fearing that Guangxu would resent in the future, urged Cixi to abolish Guangxu, but the discussion was undecided. After hearing the news, ministers of various countries went to Hajj on the first day of the New Year and asked why. Empress Dowager Cixi was afraid of foreign interference. In order to test the attitude of foreign powers, at the suggestion of Rong Lu, on June 24th, 1900, she issued a letter in the name of Emperor Guangxu, claiming that she was infertile, the son of King Zaiyi, the king of the county, and the eldest brother at the age of 15, which was historically called the beginning of the establishment of Ji Hai.
However, when the imperial edict came out, it immediately caused an uproar in the world. 19001On October 27th, Jing Yuanshan, the general manager of Shanghai Telegraph Bureau, led a telegram to ask Emperor Guangxu to "be on the defensive and not abdicate". The signers are Ma Yuzao, Zhang, Wang Yinian, Ding Huikang, Shen Zhou, Tang, Jing Hengyi, Cai Yuanpei, Huang Yanpei, etc. 65,438+0. At the same time, the Notice of Publicity of Provinces was issued, requiring all provinces to make joint efforts. "If the court ignores it, please ask me to go to the market to discuss it." Ministers of various countries thought that the event of building storage affected the stability of China, and then issued a warning and refused to join. Empress Dowager Cixi hated the great powers, and encouraged by conservative ministers, she took a laissez-faire attitude towards the Boxer Rebellion, which eventually led to Eight-Nation Alliance's invasion.
At first, the reformists sought political innovation within the Qing system, but after the 1898 coup, they became criminals arrested by the government. 1898 coup made these people meet revolutionaries in Japan. At that time, Miyazaki Hayao, Inukai Tsuyoshi and other Japanese ronins who were enthusiastic about zhina tried to fix the "Zhong Xing Society" (Sun Wen) and "Reformists" (Kang Youwei) who were both in Japan, hoping that the two parties would join hands to rebel. 1898 coup led directly to 1900 Xavier's attempt to cooperate with the revolutionary party, and launched a self-defense uprising during the Boxer Rebellion and Eight-Nation Alliance. After the failure of the Reform Uprising, it was replaced by revolutionaries who advocated overthrowing the Manchu Dynasty, drastic changes, and overthrowing the original system and government, and finally the Qing Dynasty went to extinction.
Evaluation:
The Reform Movement of 1898, as a modern bourgeois reform movement in China, is of progressive significance. Although it was strangled by Empress Dowager Cixi, it also laid the ideological foundation for the Xinhai Revolution that broke out after 13.
First, it promoted the self-reform of the Qing government. /kloc-Eight-Nation Alliance invaded in 0/900, and Empress Dowager Cixi fled to xi 'an with Guangxu, which taught Cixi a painful lesson. After the signing of the Xin Chou Peace Treaty, Empress Dowager Cixi ordered the implementation of the New Deal, including training the new army; Abolish the imperial examination and establish a school; Reward private factories; Reform the legal system; Send five ministers to study abroad and prepare for constitutionalism; Establish advisory committees, advisory groups, etc. Some of these changes have gone beyond the content of the reform in that year.
Second, it aroused people's antipathy to the Manchu government and promoted the transformation of intellectuals from reform to revolution. 1898 After the failed coup, the number of people who supported Sun Yat-sen's revolution increased, and many intellectuals who had illusions about the Qing government turned to revolutionaries.
Third, it promoted China's ideological emancipation movement.
(1) The theory of political reform is more deeply rooted in people's hearts. It is generally believed that there is no way out without change. Change is a common sense at all times, at home and abroad, and China should also undergo great changes and complete changes.
(2) Democratic ideas spread further. Reformists only dare to talk about "civil rights" and admit that the people have the right to participate in managing politics, but they dare not talk about "democracy" and refuse to admit that the people are the masters of the country and society. After the Reform Movement of 1898, the democratic trend of thought was fully developed.
(3) Aroused a new wave of seeking the truth of saving the country from the West. After the failure of the Reform Movement of 1898, more young people went abroad to study, more western theories were translated into China, and China's ideological circle became more active.
Fourth, it became a prelude to the May 4th New Culture Movement. After the Reform Movement of 1898, the cause of new culture flourished, and there was an upsurge in running schools, newspapers and publishing new books in China. During the Reform Movement of 1898, in order to "enlighten" the people, the reformists advocated the vernacular Chinese and the "novel revolution". After the failure of the Reform Movement of 1898, more vernacular newspapers and periodicals appeared, and more vernacular Chinese was advocated. In addition to the novel revolution, the reformists continue to advocate the revolution of poetry, music, thought, morality, religion and even history.