Wang Cai

Kang Youwei is a famous representative of China's modern reform thoughts, the leader of the reform movement during the Reform Movement of 1898, and one of the "advanced China people" [1] who sought truth from the west at that time. However, after the coup in 1898, he raised the banner of royalism, insisted on constitutionalism and opposed revolution and * * *, thus falling behind the times. Based on this, for many years, Chinese mainland historians have mainly focused on Kang Youwei's thoughts and activities during the Reform Movement of 1898, but generally denied his political attitude and thoughts after the coup of 1898, lacking specific and in-depth analysis and research. In order to evaluate Kang Youwei comprehensively and correctly, this paper intends to make a preliminary discussion on Kang Youwei's political thought during the Revolution of 1911. Please correct the mistakes in the history circle.

one

1898 After the coup, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao fled overseas. In the situation of national crisis and class contradiction deepening day by day, in order to save "40 million people", continue the cause of reform and reform, and forge a new China in Europe [2], Kang Youwei did not avoid hardships, "cried like Japan and went to Britain to rescue the driver" [3], hoping that Japanese and British imperialism would come forward and force the Western Empress Dowager to return to politics as Emperor Guangxu. After this disillusionment, he founded the royalist society in Canada in July 1899, and then took the boxer movement as an opportunity to plan the armed "diligent king" of the two lakes and Guangdong. Since then, while living in Singapore, Penang and Darjeeling, India, on the one hand, he has continued to explore the road of saving the country and the people, and has successively completed a series of important works, such as Notes on Li Yun, Notes on the Doctrine of the Mean, Notes on the Analects of Confucius, Notes on Universities, Mencius and Datongshu, to further improve them. On the other hand, under the banner of "protecting the emperor", he not only attacked the feudal die-hards, but also tried his best to stop the development of bourgeois democratic revolutionary movement, and clearly put forward the theory of "saving the country by your constitution" and its realization.

(1) Attacking autocracy and praising democracy.

Kang Youwei's important book "Datong Book" first strongly criticized the existing system, especially the feudal autocratic system, when constructing the prospect of a future Datong society. The book of great harmony is divided into ten articles, one of which is entitled "Suffering from the World Audience". The Ministry listed 38 kinds of "bitterness" in troubled times, such as the bitterness of life, the bitterness of natural disasters, the bitterness of human nature and the bitterness of governing by people. In fact, it depicts the existing world as a sea of suffering that is ubiquitous and without suffering. When Kang Youwei discussed the root of this series of sufferings, he mainly pointed to the feudal monarchy. He pointed out that in the world of monarchy, "respecting the monarch and restraining the people" and "respecting men and inferring women" completely violate human nature. When the emperor seized the throne, he "killed countless people" and was called the emperor, but he was actually a "thief housekeeper"; After seizing the throne, in order to maintain their rule, they took all kinds of cruel and extremely repressive measures against their subjects: "If the husband's birthright is forbidden, the oppression of the system is more embarrassing than being imprisoned"; "The monarch despots his country, preys on his people, treats nymphs like sand, and is cruel to his people"; And Daxing Wenzi Prison, "a word is lost and it dies." Under the autocratic rule, "the regime is not allowed to participate, and taxes are getting heavier and heavier, which destroys people's livelihood and dampens people's hearts." Make sure his body is restrained, his shame is withered, his ambition is swept away, and his god is gloomy. If the people come from a witch, they are stupid and stupid, and they are slaves. "He denounced that under this autocratic rule," those who violate justice and harm others are incomparable "is the biggest obstacle to achieving great harmony and" must be removed "[4].

While criticizing autocracy, Kang Youwei combined the thought of "natural human rights" of the western bourgeoisie with Liu Yun's thought of great harmony and Confucianism's theory of "benevolence" and expounded his democratic thought in detail. He said: "People in the world are born with the same nature and are brothers." [5] Accordingly, he thinks: First, people are completely equal. Since "everyone is born in heaven and everyone is in heaven", it should be "everyone is free and everyone is equal". I can't impose unreasonable reasons on others, nor can others impose unreasonable reasons on me. I call it a peaceful world. [6] Second, the world is "public". That is, "all people in Zhili are public" and "all people are one, there is no difference between rich and poor, and there is no difference between men and women." [7] Third, everyone has independent rights. Since everyone is born with the same temperament and desire, everyone should enjoy the same power. "In short, everyone has independent rights, which is the axiom of the earth and the pole of civilization. This is beyond reproach. " [8] Based on the above democratic principles, Kang Youwei expounded the origin and nature of the country and designed the blueprint for the future ideal country. He thinks. Since everyone is "the same son of heaven", then "all countries in the world are the same thing to people of all countries, and non-human families are the same thing", [9] but people gathered together have a lot of affairs and can't all be engaged in public * * * undertakings, so they should be elected by public. "The so-called monarch, on behalf of all the people to save happiness for the public, for all the people, that is, for the public. The people are like the people of the store owner, the gentleman is the hired manager, the people are the guests, and the people are the masters and servants, so the people are noble and light. " [10] Since "Jun" is a public servant elected by the people to work for the minor, there is no foundation for the existence of "absolute monarchy", and the only fair and reasonable state power can only be a democratic one. Kang Youwei imagined that the "government" in the future "Great Harmony" world, named "public government", is mainly a social, economic and cultural management organ, rather than a compulsory state machine. Members of the public government are elected by the people, and their administrative officials are elected by members of the House of Representatives. These officials have different titles, but they do whatever they do in their posts. If they are outside the post, everyone in the world is equal and there is no title. " [1 1] Obviously, this is the idea of bourgeois state power taking western countries as an example and taking "everyone is equal" as the principle.

(2) Adhere to constitutional monarchy and oppose revolution and * * *

Liang Qichao pointed out: "China's civil rights advocates are headed by Mr. (referring to Kang Youwei). However, when it comes to the implementation of policies, it pays attention to monarchical power ... Mr. Wang's proposal is about the law of the monarch, which means exercising civil rights. If the husband is democratically formulated, he will think that it is impossible. What he sees is not just gratitude today. " [12] This passage clearly shows that the perfect democratic system proposed by Kang Youwei cannot be realized immediately, and it must first go through the stage of demanding civil rights from the rulers and gradually establishing a constitutional monarchy. Why is this happening? Kang Youwei put forward two reasons: first, the development of society can only be gradual, can not wait, can not be surpassed. He believes that "if you think badly, do what you want to do" [13], your ideal can be very high, and you must act according to time. The development of human society is in the order of troubled times, upgrading times and Taiping times. Politically, every life has its own political system, the monarchy is suitable for troubled times, the constitutional monarchy is suitable for the prosperity of the world, and the democracy is suitable for the peaceful world. The development of society and the evolution of political system can only be carried out in this order, and artificial suppression or encouragement is harmful. According to Kang Youwei, it is: "In order to govern orderly, there is an evolutionary hierarchy, and the order is not judged. Those who want to go up step by step will not be upset." [14] At that time, China was in transition from troubled times to peaceful times, so it could only change the monarchy into a constitutional monarchy, but not * * *. Second, the people of China are not qualified to be citizens. Kang Youwei believes that the people of China have experienced thousands of years of autocratic rule, deeply poisoned by despotism, and their wisdom has not been opened, so the people are not qualified for democracy. In this case, it is as dangerous to urgently seek a higher form of government as to maintain an outdated system that has lost its effectiveness, because "in troubled times, before people's wisdom is opened, there must be contemporary monarch governance and parental rearing." Otherwise, the group is unstable, the people's livelihood is difficult to achieve, and it is difficult to achieve peace. " [15] Therefore, in the process of striving for democracy, the most ideal way is to use the existing monarchy and establish a constitutional monarchy through reform; China's democratization process must be adhered to, but considering the existing strength and environment, the way of change must be slow and peaceful.

If you use the monarchy, you must protect the emperor. From the death of the Reform Movement of 1898, Kang Youwei put forward the slogan of "protecting the emperor". 1899 In July, "Save the Emperor Guangxu" was established, also known as "Save the Emperor Company", which was referred to as the royalist society in English. Since then, he has organized the masses to carry out various activities under the banner of "royalists". So, what does Kang Youwei's royalist thought include? First, oppose the rule of the die-hards headed by Nora. Kang Youwei said: China is weak, "all because one person in the West is unwilling to reform." [16] [17]1898 coup, Emperor Guangxu, who supported the political reform, was jailed, and die-hards such as Nara Price and Rong Lu came to power. They suppressed reformists and revolutionaries at home and surrendered and betrayed the country abroad. Therefore, it is undoubtedly progressive to oppose Nara Price's reactionary rule under the banner of returning to politics. Second, in order to continue to rely on the emperor's political reform and implement constitutional monarchy. Kang Youwei said: "The thought from ancient times to the present comes from a great and promising monarch. ..... I haven't seen anyone who can achieve the scale of reform and governance without the heroic and sacred monarch "[18]. "Try how difficult it is for the country to open a house. Both Britain and France are contending, killing people like hemp, and it will be known after a hundred years. Russia has been arguing for generations, but it has not been realized so far. (a) the emperor was eager to open it, unintentionally, but thought of keeping secrets and following the crowd. This is the real Lord of Yao and Shun. Have full authority, scale in March, effective in three years, and strong in China in ten years. " [19] Third, save China from peril. Kang Youwei's Example of Saving the Qing Emperor Company clearly stipulates: "Today, comrades are committed to saving the emperor, mainly through political reform to save China and the yellow race." [20] "If the emperor is restored and the New Party assists in the political reform, China will be preserved and the people will benefit. This can be advanced by the effect of the Hundred Days Reform Movement. " [2 1] In short, Kang Youwei's "protecting the king" is different from the old "respecting the monarch" and is also different from simply maintaining the "Qing Dynasty". He wanted to achieve the goal of civil rights and freedom through "royalism" [22], that is, to turn absolute monarchy into constitutional monarchy and make China independent and prosperous. 1900, the Tang Self-Defense Forces uprising, on the one hand, declared that it "decided not to recognize the right of the Manchu government to rule China" and "set up another self-supporting country", on the other hand, urged the restoration of Emperor Guangxu [23]; This seemingly contradictory purpose actually embodies the real idea of the royalists headed by Kang Youwei, that is, to establish a new country with a constitutional monarchy headed by Guangxu. This country can be called "Qing Dynasty" or "China", but whatever it is called, it is qualitatively different from the original monarchy in Qing Dynasty. Of course, Kang Youwei's hope of carrying out political reform and establishing a constitutional monarchy is completely pinned on an emperor Guangxu who has no real power, and it can only be an illusion that can never be realized. At the same time, he is even more wrong to "protect the emperor" in the booming bourgeois democratic revolution.

It is Kang Youwei's unchangeable thought to deny all forms of revolutionary struggle. During the Reform Movement of 1898, he took political reform as a means to resist the mass revolutionary struggle. 1898 After the coup, he fled to Japan and resolutely rejected Sun Yat-sen's idea of joint revolutionary struggle. When the democratic revolutionary movement was flourishing, 1902, he enthusiastically published two open letters, one was "On India's subjugation due to the independence of provinces" with his classmate Liang Qichao, and the other was a letter to Chinese businessmen in North and South America, arguing that only constitutional revolution was feasible in China, and he opposed the bourgeois democratic revolutionary movement for various reasons. In the previous letter, Kang Youwei emphatically opposed the idea of revolutionary independence in various provinces, arguing that "I have lived in India for a long time and studied its modern history roughly, which is the reason for its death, that is, the independence that China provinces yearn for". [24] If I get rid of the Qing government and declare independence, I will die in India. In the latter letter, he pointed out: First, revolution is not good for a country. The French revolution, "eighty years of chaos, bleeding millions"; The peasant revolutions in ancient China were all "rivers of blood and dead people like hemp"; Today's guns are far from being comparable to ancient swords and guns. If the revolution is carried out, it will "kill half of the 40 million compatriots." Second, under the situation that foreign powers are stepping up their aggression, if China holds a revolution, it will be "destroyed by civil strife", just like a clam at loggerheads, and the fisherman will benefit, which will eventually lead to the interference of foreign powers and its demise. Third, the revolutionary army, which started from the frontier and lacked new guns and training, was in line with the national strength and had new guns and well-trained government troops. The revolution "will be defeated and destroyed, and nothing will be achieved." The situation is that "the revolution has not been completed, and the people have been painted with charcoal, then civil rights and freedoms will be gone." Therefore, it is true to have the sincerity of patriotism and love for the people, but it is ok to say that there is no need to talk about revolution in civil rights and freedom. "Fourth, Manchuria, Mongolia and Han nationality are all one species; Political autocracy is an extension of Han, Tang, Song and Ming Dynasties, not an original creation of Manchuria. Man and Han have long been equal, "Han people can be prime ministers"; In this case, the revolutionaries will attack Manchuria as soon as they open their mouths, which is a "great strange thing." "Moreover, in the royal family, Emperor Guangxu gave his life to save the people. As long as "the emperor is restored, he can reform and strengthen himself, establish civil rights to discuss state affairs and establish national freedom and autonomy." [25] At that time, under the historical conditions that the Qing Dynasty had become a serious obstacle to China's independence and prosperity, the revolutionaries resolutely launched an anti-Qing revolutionary struggle aimed at establishing the Republic of * * *, which was undoubtedly just and progressive. Kang Youwei, the stationmaster who stood on the opposite side of the revolutionaries, resolutely opposed the revolution and violated the trend of historical development. His opposition to the revolution exposed his extreme weakness of ignoring the masses, fearing violence, great turmoil and imperialism.

two

In order to resist the revolution and promote the rising constitutional movement, Kang Youwei began an extensive and in-depth investigation of major countries in the world from 65438 to 0904 on the eve of the growing revolutionary movement, the intensified internal division of royalists and the bankruptcy of the "New Deal" promoted by the Qing government. During this period, with a high sense of patriotism and historical mission, he took "trying his best to save the government and compare China and the West" as his "full-time" [26], tasted Shennong, which is full of herbs all over the world, and made a self-commitment, "picking the fruits of civilization from left to right and munching them", "testing its nature, controlling its color and taste, not controlling its quality, observing its suitability and making it a prescription. Through investigation, he put forward the theory of material salvation, financial management and money salvation, focusing on realizing China's industrialization and solving financial difficulties. Politically, the theory of constitutional monarchy is further expounded through the travel notes written.

(1) Constitutional monarchy is the foundation for the prosperity of western countries.

Kang Youwei acquired knowledge about western countries from books in his early years. He once enthusiastically eulogized western civilization and sincerely hoped to emulate western countries and make China prosperous through political reform. After investigation, he deeply felt that there were serious social contradictions in the West, and he was not superior to China in spiritual and moral aspects. He said that as early as the beginning of 1899, when he arrived in the United States and Europe, he felt "disappointed that what he saw when he was studying on weekdays was far from what he dreamed." After this trip, I have deepened this understanding. In Italy, Kang Youwei can see basin traps, frauds and robberies everywhere. This "rags-like feeling" is also common in other countries. From this, he concluded: "People who have never been to Europe want to see their land as beautiful and beautiful, as immortals and as talents. Do you know that their filth can't cure frauds and thieves everywhere? " [28] But he also saw that in modern times, the West has indeed undergone earth-shaking changes, and the speed of its progress is "unparalleled in ancient times" [29], far exceeding that of China. The prosperity of the West is the result of promoting civil rights and establishing constitutionalism. Although Kang Youwei's view that the parliamentary system originated in the west rather than China based on the different geographical environment is wrong [30], he clearly pointed out: "The old customs of the Teutonic tribe in England have been floating for thousands of years and originated in Mishima; With the old customs of Mishima parliament, it originated from Wanli in the United States; Its counterforce inspired the law, making it a unique new system on earth. " "Britain must flow first, so it is the strongest on earth. Europe and the United States broadcast first, so it is the second strongest. " Italy, Germany and Japan are all constitutional countries, and they were all poor in the past. Today, Germany is a thin sea, and Japan has surpassed it to become a first-class country. " If China transplants this advanced system, its development will in turn surpass that of Europe and America [3 1].

During the inspection, Kang Youwei made a comparative study of the political systems of European and American countries. First of all, compare Austria and Germany: Austria and Germany are a species and a custom, and Austria's territory is larger than Germany's. However, in just a few decades, Germany strengthened its military equipment, rewarded industry and commerce, and quickly became a world power; Austria, adjacent to it, is still weak. The reason is that Austria is not unified internally, with strong civil rights, and the Austrian king has no autocratic power. "The people are very ugly", so the development is limited [32]. Germany, on the other hand, "takes the people of the constitution as the body and the British monarchy as the use." [33] That is to say, Dedi has extraordinary power, all ministers and watchmen inside and outside the government obey his command, and the administrative power is "invincible"; However, the executive power of the monarch must not be outside the scope of the law, so the people are not harmed by tyranny. "So all the advantages and disadvantages are removed, and the people benefit from it. This is why virtue is getting stronger and stronger. " [34] Secondly, compared with Anglo-American law, Britain adopts a constitutional monarchy, and there are only three political parties within it. The Progressive Party and the Conservative Party attacked each other and "small parties sealed the gap", so the government was even; When one party is in power, the autocratic power of its leader is no different from that of a monarch, so Britain can also make its government strong within the scope of law [35]. The United States dominates the North American continent, and no other country competes with it. "The people are personable and personable in order to achieve the effect of constitutional democracy." [36] The legal person wants to go to France with American politics, "but the legal person is too fast. At that time, there were very few people in the country who could read and write, so they knew nothing about politics and even the laws promulgated by Congress. With Ross's personality, obey his right to vote; Grasp the power of political discussion; This also makes judicial officials listen to the people's actions, but they also hold legal power. He can only hate his fierce and greedy nature. The strong kill and the greedy plunder. " Therefore, under the democratic system, legal persons "benefit a lot, but they are miserable." There is no reason not to be excited when Germany, Britain and the United States are thriving. [37] Third, look at South American countries and Turkey: Central and South American countries have established republics after independence, but the civil strife caused by soldiers vying for the presidency has never stopped. It's just that the father of Mexico was elected president in the national chaos and ruled Mexico for nearly 30 years, resulting in unprecedented stability and progress in Central and South American families. However, after 19 1 1 father was expelled by force, Mexico returned to a state of repeated chaos for the presidency. 1In July, 908, Kang Youwei went to Turkey, when the Turkish Youth Party came to power, promulgated the New Deal and convened the National Assembly. Take Europe and America as an example. He "abandoned the old legal system and had more than 200 empty constitutions at once, which was easy. However, when the green and yellow are not connected, the restrictions in Europe and the United States are unexpected, and the Chinese people are at a loss, just dancing. " [39] Through the above comparison, Kang Youwei draws the following conclusions: First, in constitutionalism, the monarch and the people rule together, and the monarch and the people benefit, that is, constitutional monarchy. "When the country struggles, it is actually an appropriate law. Today, Germany is the first country to make great progress, which can be proved. "Second, in the constitutional system," the fewer political parties, the stronger the government and the stronger the country; The more political parties, the weaker the government and the weaker the country "[40]. Third, "the constitutionalism of all countries is only a country ruled by law, and everyone is ruled by law. Everyone can be equal and free unless there is no discipline. " And "the old system has been running for thousands of years, and it was sent by the people and the country. Although Ji Gang's statutes have accumulated disadvantages, they can only go too far and step by step. When you get to the end, the people have nothing to send, and you won't be confused. "[4 1] In short, the constitutional monarchy can only be established gradually, but not democratically.

(2) Criticize false constitutionalism and demand true constitutionalism.

As a patriot, Kang Youwei always insisted on establishing a real constitutional government in China. To this end, he fought tirelessly against the false reform and constitutionalism of the die-hards of the Qing government. As early as 1903, he criticized that the "New Deal" of the Qing government failed to grasp the fundamental principle of "taking civil rights as the country" and could not save China [42]. 1906, the Qing court issued a letter to prepare for constitutionalism, and Kang Youwei was encouraged. But he soon discovered that the reform carried out by the Qing government under the signboard of constitutionalism was not constitutionalism, but general national politics. In fact, it is "rejecting the invitation of the true constitutionalists in the name of constitutionalism" and arbitrarily deceiving and obstructing constitutionalism. Kang Youwei pointed out that there is a fundamental difference between autocracy and constitutionalism. "The absolute monarch, the people's constitutional public; Authoritarian world, constitutional public world "; "Authoritarian government is decided by a few people, and the gentleman's president is in the top, and the number is in the bottom. Constitutionalism is discussed by the people of the whole country and made public. " The embodiment of national public discussion and public affairs requires the convening of a congress to ensure that legislation is open to the people [43]. He said: "Deputies unite with the people of a country, recommend the talents of a country, and negotiate the government of a country. This is the first principle of the official system." [44] Therefore, "if you really want to save the country, you must first make a constitution. If we really want to establish a constitution, we must first establish a national assembly. " "From now on, there is no other way to save the country and wait for the strategy of strengthening the enemy and consolidating the border defense." [45]

Kang Youwei believes that to implement real constitutionalism, it is necessary to reform the existing bureaucratic system and promote local autonomy. He pointed out that the people are the foundation of the country. Whether it is a constitutional monarchy or a democratic constitutional country, the interests of the people are the most important. The standard to measure the quality of a government should be its ability to serve the people. At the same time, in a highly competitive world, only a strong central government can deal with the serious problems facing the country. However, strengthening centralization and improving administrative efficiency is based on political democracy. Kang Youwei said: "For the monarch, the official is for the people, and I don't know the week of people's autonomy. The old people's reform stresses governing the people, and my reform stresses people's autonomy first. " [46] He believes that before convening the National Assembly, local autonomy should be implemented first, and people in various regions should elect their own representatives to form the parliaments of townships, counties, governments and provinces; The selected personnel will handle household registration survey, roads, public health, schools, irrigation and other local affairs. As a result, it will provide citizens with opportunities to ask questions about politics and improve the quality of citizens, thus laying a solid foundation for the implementation of constitutionalism throughout the country [47].

(c) Opposing democracy and resisting democracy

While fighting for the establishment of constitutional government and feudal rule in Qing Dynasty, Kang Youwei continued to crack down on revolutionaries. Through the investigation of countries all over the world, he further concluded that China can only establish constitutionalism, but not revolution. However, the revolution was not stopped by Kang Youwei, but continued to develop, which eventually led to the outbreak of the Wuchang Uprising in June. Confronted with the revolutionary storm sweeping across the country, Kang Youwei has felt that "the general trend of revolution has rolled across the river like a flood" [48], which is unstoppable. But he still tried to stop the establishment of the Republic. He pointed out that in modern times, some countries in Europe and America have indeed established different forms of political systems, but "there are no people who arbitrarily established political systems like the United States and France." In view of this, many countries in Europe and America "can't * * *, but must establish a monarch, or even have no monarch, but still seek it, welcome foreigners, and take the monarch as their life." [49] Kang Youwei believes that foreign experience has proved that * * * and political system should not be adopted, and constitutional monarchy is the most appropriate. However, considering the domestic situation at that time, China should absorb the advantages of the two systems and create a new system, that is, "virtual monarch * * and". Compared with democracy and two systems, "virtual monarch * * * and democracy * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *. The only difference is that the virtual monarch and the political body have a god-like virtual monarch, who has no power or influence over the prime minister. Its advantage is that it can avoid the constant political struggle and turmoil against the president under the political system, and it is more conducive to the stability of the country because the people believe in the minister and fear him. [50] Kang Youwei believes that although the virtual monarch has no power and does not need talent, the virtual monarch is also a "god" and must have a very high qualification status. No one in China can compare. " Then there is a certain point that is not disputed "[5 1]. According to this condition, only the descendants of Qing Emperor Xuan Tong and Confucius, the Duke of Feast, can be awarded this position. Obviously, although Kang Youwei painstakingly created a new political system, it is not difficult to see from its contents that * * * and * * are still nicknames of constitutional monarchy in Britain and Japan. His attempt to prevent democracy and nation-building is doomed to be futile. Regrettably, Kang Youwei failed to learn from it. After the founding of the Republic of China, politically, although Yuan Shikai's traitorous, autocratic and dictatorial behavior was strongly exposed and criticized, he still stubbornly insisted on overthrowing democracy and system, establishing a constitutional monarchy, and directed the ugly drama of Xuantong's restoration, which was spurned by the people of the whole country.

Generally speaking, after the 1898 coup, the bourgeois-led democratic revolutionary movement gradually became an irresistible trend of the times. In this situation, Kang Youwei advocated royalism, insisted on constitutional monarchy, and always opposed revolution and * * * and system, which lagged behind modernization and hindered the development of revolution, which should be denied. But Kang Youwei is also a powerful and rich road. He opposed * * * and, not to maintain autocracy; Opposing the revolution is not to maintain the decadent Qing Dynasty. His persistent goal is to gradually realize the democratization of China's politics under the guidance of bourgeois democratic thought, and to promote China's modernization through gradual and peaceful means. This should be affirmed. Kang Youwei's tragedy lies in that, due to the limitations of the times and classes, he has always regarded himself as a prophet and savior, despised the masses, feared turmoil and imperialism, and resolutely opposed violent revolution; At the same time, in the process of learning from the west, when the internal contradictions of capitalism are fully exposed, it is impossible for him to make a correct judgment with scientific ideological weapons. In order to avoid its disadvantages, he had to focus on the feudal tradition to find a "prescription" and went back. These should be analyzed in detail and evaluated realistically.

S/qsyj/ztyj/xhgm/June 7, 2004