Since 1930s, western organizational behaviorists and psychologists have conducted a lot of research on leadership from different angles. After decades of development, these studies have developed from general leadership morphology and leadership ecology to leadership dynamics, which led to the birth and development of leadership contingency theory and became the mainstream of western leadership theory. Therefore, it is of positive significance for the development of China's leadership science to review the history of leadership contingency theory and evaluate it scientifically.

Contingency theory has only been produced for more than 20 years, but its influence has spread to many fields of organizational behavior and human resource management research, and it has a very important position.

In the early 1960s, people gradually realized that it was unrealistic to find a fixed leadership personality, leadership type and leadership behavior suitable for any organization, any nature of work and task, and understood that organizational management should be adapted to the internal and external conditions of the organization. It is generally believed that the leadership process is an equation of the leader, the led and their environmental factors, that is, the effectiveness of leadership = f (leader, led and environment). The efficiency of leadership is related to the specific situation and environment of the leader, and cannot be managed by a fixed model.

According to contingency theory or situational theory, there is no fixed and universally applicable best management theory and method, and organizational management should be adjusted adaptively according to the internal and external conditions of the organization. Contingency theory takes internal and external environment and other factors as independent variables, and management ideas, management methods and management techniques as dependent variables, which change with the change of independent variables. Managers should determine the most effective management method according to the functional relationship between independent variables and dependent variables.

The emergence of contingency theory stems from the development of system theory, which emphasizes the study of things from the whole rather than the part. The researchers of Tovistock Institute applied the system theory to the management process and put forward the theory of "social-technical system", pointing out that the so-called social-technical system means that an enterprise is a complete system composed of various subsystems. These include target value system, organizational structure system, psychological and social system and management system. In an enterprise, the subsystems are interrelated and influence each other, which has the openness of the system. In order to achieve the best organizational performance, the social psychological factors of individuals and groups in the organization must adapt to the technical environment factors. Therefore, one of the main characteristics of contingency theory is to regard organizational performance as the result of the interaction of these factors.

The theory of leadership contingency is a kind of leadership theory developed after studying the behavior of leaders. The emergence of this theory marks that the modern western leadership research has entered a new stage of development.

Since the beginning of this century, the study of western leadership has gone through three stages: the first stage is the study of the characteristics of leaders, with the focus on identifying the characteristics or characteristics of leaders, so as to understand what kind of talents are suitable for being leaders, such as 79 characteristics that distinguish leaders from non-leaders found in Birs' early research; Secondly, the leader behavior research stage, whose research purport is to describe the leader behavior or leadership style, that is, to understand what a leader should do and how to do it well, such as k.Lewin's leadership style theory, R.Blake and Morton's "management grid theory" and so on; Thirdly, the research stage of leadership contingency theory aims to explore the relationship between leadership style and group organizational effectiveness. After the emergence of contingency theory, the previous leadership theory was eclipsed by its unique charm.

First of all, contingency theory integrates the complexity of leadership phenomenon. Leadership is an extremely complicated social phenomenon. The emergence of a leadership phenomenon is not only the result of the leader's own behavior, but also depends on the surrounding leadership environment. No matter the study of leader's characteristics or leader's behavior, it is based on the leader's own quality or behavior to explore the leadership phenomenon, which ignores the important role of the leadership environment related to the leadership phenomenon and the role of the led in the leadership process to varying degrees. Leadership is a dynamic group process or social relationship, and the interaction between the leader and the led is the essence of the leadership process. In the process of leadership, the leader is the subject of influence, and the led is the object of influence. Without the affected object, the affected subject will lose the foundation of existence. If we neglect the study of leadership, it is difficult to understand the whole picture of leadership phenomenon, so it is suspected of being biased. The study of contingency leadership theory links the personal characteristics of leaders, the behavior of actors and the leadership environment, thus creating a relatively perfect leadership theory system.

Secondly, another important contribution of contingency theory is that it provides a set of effective leadership methods for people. The research on the characteristics of leaders focuses on the analysis of various characteristics that leaders should have as the basis for selecting leaders, but does not set foot in the field of leadership methods. Although the research on leaders' behavior has been involved in the field of leadership methods, its research purport is to sum up a set of theoretical, fixed and universally applicable leadership styles from the behaviors of many successful leaders. The contingency leadership theory explains the leadership phenomenon through the interaction of the leader's personal characteristics, the leader's behavior and the leadership environment, denies the existence of any fixed and universally applicable leadership style, and thinks that any leadership style may become the most effective leadership style as long as it is properly matched with the environment, so it does not put forward the idea of the best leadership style, and replaces it with a model of leadership style and situation collocation.

Thirdly, contingency leadership theory is more in line with the needs of practical leaders. Because leadership itself is an extremely complex social phenomenon, and researchers' viewpoints and research methods are different, the research results are contradictory, which makes the actual leaders at a loss. Contingency leadership theory explains the complexity of leadership phenomenon in an integrated way and contingency point of view, and absorbs the beneficial research results of predecessors, thus providing people with new ways to study leadership phenomenon and new methods to improve leadership efficiency, greatly narrowing the distance between leadership theory and leadership practice, and meeting the needs of actual leaders for leadership theory.

F.Fiedler, a psychologist, was the first person to make a theoretical evaluation of contingency theory. In 1962, he proposed leadership efficiency's contingency model, namely Federer model. This model organically combines the study of leader characteristics with the study of leadership behavior, and links it with situation classification to study the effect of leadership. After the investigation of 15, he pointed out that effective leadership behavior depends on the way the leader and the led interact, and the consistency of the control and influence given to the leader by the situation.

Federer believes that the behavior of leaders and the goals they want to pursue are diverse. The existence of this diversity is determined by the differences in basic needs among leaders. Therefore, leadership style should and must be defined by this demand structure. This is the basic starting point of Federer's contingency theory. Therefore, Federer divided leadership styles into two categories, namely "employee-oriented" leadership style and "work-oriented" leadership style. The former leadership style takes maintaining good interpersonal relationships as the main need, supplemented by the need to complete tasks. The latter leadership style takes the completion of tasks as the main demand, supplemented by the need to maintain good interpersonal relationships. Here, Federer regards leadership style as a personality trait of leaders, which is a lasting feature. Federer also designed an LPC scale to identify different leadership styles, and thought that no matter what kind of leadership style has advantages and disadvantages, there is no perfect leadership style.

Federer not only classified leadership styles, but also defined leadership effectiveness, and on this basis, he deeply discussed how to make all kinds of leadership styles give full play to their functions. Federer believes that no matter what kind of leadership style a leader adopts, his ultimate goal is to get the greatest leadership efficiency. In order to get the ideal leadership efficiency, a certain leadership style must match the corresponding leadership situation.

Leadership situation, also known as "group-task" situation, refers to the interpersonal environment in which leadership behavior occurs. It includes the relationship between leaders and members, task structure and position power. The relationship between leaders and members refers to the feelings of group members towards their leaders, including respect, friendship, trust, cooperation, acceptance, support and loyalty. Task structure refers to whether the definition of group goals and tasks is clear and appropriate, including whether the goals are clear to members, how measurable the results are, whether the methods to solve problems are correct, and the number of ways or means to complete tasks. Position power refers to the power a leader has in his current position or the degree to which subordinates can obey orders. In other words, how much influence can a leader's current position have on his subordinates, including his position, authority and punishment, promotion and demotion, dismissal, salary increase, distribution and other abilities. Among the three factors that dominate the situation, the relationship between leaders and members is the most important. In Federer's view, if a leader wants to achieve theoretical leadership effectiveness, he must effectively control the leadership situation through certain leadership methods, and the degree of leadership control over the leadership situation depends on how the leader makes the three factors of the leadership situation cooperate with each other. According to the different coordination of these three factors, we can see how much the leaders control the situation. Therefore, the biggest advantage of Federer model is that it absorbs the previous research results on leadership behavior and distinguishes the situations in which different leadership styles can exert leadership effectiveness.

Following Federer's contingency theory, in the early 1970s, a new type of leadership contingency theory was highly valued, which is the path goal theory of R.J.Howse, a professor at the University of Toronto in Canada. This theory expands the research of W.G.Evans, and combines the expectation theory with the two-factor theory of leadership behavior (caring for people and grasping the organization) of Ohio University. The basic premise of this theory is that some leadership behaviors are effective because they help subordinates achieve their work-related goals in this situation. House and others believe that leadership is a process of motivating subordinates. Leadership style is effective only if it applies to different subordinates and environments. The core of this theory is to ask leaders to help workers clear the way to achieve their goals by grasping the organization and caring for production, and to care for people with considerate spirit to meet their needs; Help employees achieve their predetermined goals. Therefore, House put forward four leadership styles: guidance, support, participation and achievement. These four leadership styles must be chosen according to the different situations of subordinates, and two factors should be considered when choosing, namely the personality characteristics of subordinates and environmental factors. Personality characteristics include ability, demand and so on. Environmental factors include the nature of the task, the organization and the power system of the working group.

Different from Federer's theory, the path-goal theory holds that these four leadership styles can be used by the same leader in different situations, which is a step further than Federer's two-dimensional leadership model. However, the prediction of effective leadership behavior by path-goal theory is not completely consistent. This may be due to the imperfect measurement method of leadership behavior and the measurement scale of work structure. Therefore, like other contingency theories, the "path-goal" theory is also one of the main directions to understand effective leadership behavior, but it must be further studied to improve the effectiveness of this theory.

In 1973, V.H.Vroum and P.W.Yeton put forward the leader-participation model. This model mainly studies the leadership behavior in decision making. The model points out that leaders will have many choices when making decisions, and effective leaders should let members participate in decision-making to varying degrees according to different situations. Fromm believes that there are five leadership styles that should be chosen flexibly in different situations. Fromm's model is normative-it puts forward a series of continuous rules in the form of decision trees to determine the ways and procedures of participating in decision-making in different situations.

Federer and Yetton's contingency theory also divides leadership situations into eight situations, but the criteria for division are different. Federer is divided according to the relationship between superiors and subordinates, task structure and position power, while Federer chooses the interests of managers who undertake business decision-making tasks according to the scheme revealed by decision tree. Federer's model regards the behavior characteristics of leaders as fixed and needs to adjust the environment of leaders to suit their characteristics, while the leadership-participation model holds that leadership behavior should change according to the needs of the environment.

Since 1980s, Heller and Wilpert (1984) have further put forward the Heller —Wilpert contingency model, which has attracted more attention and made a large-scale cross-cultural international comparative study. This model theoretically discusses the interaction among decision-making behavior, resource utilization, job satisfaction and management efficiency, analyzes the influence of various weight variables on decision-making behavior and its results, and puts forward the concept of "influence-power continuum" on the basis of other people's research. They believe that the participation of leaders in the decision-making process actually reflects the influence and power that subordinates can exert in the decision-making process. This influence and power can be one end of a continuum. One level has no influence and power on the decision-making system, while the lower level at the other end has complete power and comprehensive influence.

The traditional contingency model formula: y = f (x), Heller and Wilpert are challenged and criticized. They pointed out that organizational activities are extremely complex, and it is difficult for us to determine which variable is "cause" and which is "effect". For example, if the decision-making mode of participation is related to organizational performance, it is hard to say whether participation will lead to higher organizational performance or the opposite result. Therefore, they used the terms of "core variables" and "peripheral variables" in their research, but could not specify "independent variables" and "dependent variables". The so-called "core variables" refer to the behaviors that researchers pay attention to in their research, while "peripheral variables" are those variables that have an impact on the core variables. Surrounding variables contain many contents. Heller (1976) defined five levels in his research, which constitute a psychologically meaningful variable subsystem. This variable division is indeed a big step ahead of Federer, House and other models. Heller and Wilpert( 198 1) further put forward that there are at least three types of contingency models in specific research: equivalent model, hierarchical model and buffer model, which play a very important role in their research on the establishment of the overall model. Of course, the contingency theory of Hellert and Wilpert is only a theoretical hypothesis, which has not been verified by empirical research. Whether this contingency idea conforms to the actual situation deserves further study.

In a word, leadership contingency theory is an important part of contemporary western leadership theory. It combines leadership behavior with situational factors to examine leadership style, and advocates the idea of determining the best leadership style according to specific conditions, which is highly valued by people. Therefore, in the process of study and research, all kinds of contingency theories should be based on the idea of getting rid of its dross and taking its essence to promote the development of leadership science in China.

Lectures by Deng Xiaoping Theory and Theory of Three Represents.

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The contents of Deng Xiaoping Theory and Theory of Three Represents are very rich, which are embodied in Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, Volume 1 ~ 3 and the works of other leaders of our Party. The main contents of Deng Xiaoping Theory can be summarized as the following nine aspects.

First, on the issue of socialist development path, we should stress taking our own road, not taking books as dogma, not copying foreign models, taking Marxism as guidance, taking practice as the sole criterion for testing truth, emancipating our minds, seeking truth from facts, respecting the initiative of the masses, and building socialism with China characteristics.

Second, on the issue of the stage of socialist development, it draws a scientific conclusion that China is still in the primary stage of socialism and will be in it for a long time, emphasizing that this is a long historical stage of at least one hundred years, and all principles and policies must proceed from this basic national condition and cannot be divorced from reality or go beyond the stage.

Third, regarding the fundamental task of socialism, it is pointed out that the essence of socialism is to liberate and develop productive forces, eliminate exploitation and polarization, and finally achieve prosperity with * * *. It is emphasized that the main contradiction in our society at this stage is the contradiction between people's growing material and cultural needs and backward social production. We must give priority to the development of productive forces, focus on economic construction and promote all-round social progress. To judge the gains and losses of all aspects of work, in the final analysis, we should take whether it is conducive to developing the productive forces of socialist society, enhancing the comprehensive national strength of socialist countries and improving people's living standards as the standard (three benefits). Science and technology are the primary productive forces, and economic construction must rely on scientific and technological progress and the improvement of workers' quality.

Fourthly, regarding the motive force of socialist development, it is emphasized that reform is also a revolution and the liberation of productive forces, which is the only way for China's modernization. There is no way out for rigidity and stagnation. The goal of economic system reform is to establish and improve the socialist market economic system on the basis of adhering to public ownership and distribution according to work as the main body and other economic components and distribution methods as important components. The goal of political system reform is to improve the system of people's congresses, the system of multi-party cooperation and political consultation under the leadership of the production party, develop socialist democratic politics and build socialist political civilization. Adapt to the economic and political reform and development, and build socialist spiritual civilization with the goal of "having ideals, morality, culture and discipline".

Fifthly, regarding the external conditions of socialist construction, it is pointed out that peace and development are two major themes in the contemporary world, and we must adhere to an independent foreign policy of peace and strive for a favorable international environment for China's modernization. It is emphasized that reform and construction must be open to the outside world, and all advanced civilization achievements created by all countries in the world, including developed capitalist countries, should be absorbed and utilized to develop socialism. Closing can only lead to backwardness.

Sixth, on the issue of political guarantee for socialist construction, it is emphasized to adhere to the socialist road, the people's democratic dictatorship, the leadership of China's * * * production party and Marxism-Mao Zedong Thought. These four basic principles are the foundation of the country and the guarantee for the healthy development of reform, opening up and modernization, from which we can gain new contents of the times.

Seventh, regarding the strategic steps of socialist construction, it is proposed that the basic realization of modernization is divided into three steps. In the long process of modernization, we should seize the opportunity, strive for several stages with faster development and better benefits, and reach a higher level every few years. Poverty is not socialism, and it is impossible to be rich at the same time. It is necessary to allow and encourage some regions and some people to get rich first, and drive more and more regions and more people to gradually achieve common prosperity.

Eighth, on the issue of socialist leadership and dependence, it is emphasized that the * * * production party, as the vanguard of the working class, is the core of leadership in the socialist cause. The party must meet the needs of reform, opening up and modernization, constantly improve and strengthen its leadership in all aspects of work, and improve and strengthen its own construction. The party style of the ruling party and the relationship between the party and the people are related to the life and death of the party. We must rely on the broad masses of workers, peasants and intellectuals, on the unity of the people of all ethnic groups and on the broadest United front of all socialist workers, patriots who support socialism and patriots who support the reunification of the motherland. The people's army led by the Party is the defender of the socialist motherland and an important force in building socialism.

Ninth, on the issue of the reunification of the motherland, the creative concept of "one country, two systems" was put forward. On the premise of one China, the main body of the state adheres to the socialist system, and the original capitalist systems in Hongkong, Macau and Taiwan Province Province will remain unchanged for a long time. According to this principle, it will promote the great cause of peaceful reunification of the motherland.

There are many other contents in Deng Xiaoping Theory, which will be continuously enriched, improved and developed in the process of studying new situations and solving new problems.

In Deng Xiaoping Theory, economic theory is rich in content, and we can summarize Deng Xiaoping's economic theory system as "seven ones". That is, "a premise, a task, a goal, a step, a way, a means, a standard."

One premise: public ownership as the main body and the common development of multi-ownership economy;

One task: developing productive forces;

One goal: to achieve * * * and prosperity;

One step: the strategic deployment of "three steps";

One way: reform and opening up;

One means: implementing the socialist market economy;

One standard: "Three benefits".

Deng Xiaoping Theory's content can be summarized as follows: Deng Xiaoping Theory, as a Marxism in contemporary China, discussed how the Communist Party of China (CPC) led the people of all ethnic groups in the primary stage of socialism, carried out socialist economic construction, democratic politics and political civilization construction, spiritual civilization construction, safeguarded national unity, opposed all forms of hegemonism and power politics, and maintained world peace by constantly strengthening its own construction.

Theory of Three Represents is the inheritance and development of Marxism–Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, and it is a powerful theoretical weapon to strengthen and improve Party building and promote the self-improvement and development of socialism in China. Like Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, it is the guiding ideology of China's * * * production party, and it insists that "Theory of Three Represents" is the foundation of our party, the foundation of governance and the source of strength.

"Theory of Three Represents" is the fundamental requirement of Party building under the new historical conditions. Only by resolutely implementing the "Theory of Three Represents" and serving the people wholeheartedly can we embody the Party's ideological construction, organizational construction and work style construction.

"Theory of Three Represents" provides an objective standard for testing how the overall goal of Party building (serving the people) has been achieved. "Theory of Three Represents" emphasizes practice and pays attention to the effectiveness of party building. "Theory of Three Represents" is the yardstick to measure the quality of Party building.

"Theory of Three Represents" provides a broader exploration space for the practice of Party building. Under the guidance of this theory, we can re-examine the Party's construction thought from a higher and broader perspective, constantly emancipate our minds and prevent the influence of "left" and right erroneous thoughts. Constantly strengthen party building.

"Theory of Three Represents" is the general program of Party building in the new period. The founding of the Party in accordance with the "Theory of Three Represents" thought marks a new development stage of Party building in the new era.

Deng Xiaoping Theory mainly solved the basic problems of "what is socialism" and "how to build socialism".

"Theory of Three Represents" thought focused on answering the basic questions of "what kind of party to build" and "how to build the party".

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