The center of the Enlightenment is in France. The leader of the French Enlightenment was Voltaire. His thoughts had a great influence on Europe in the18th century, so later people once said, "18th century is Voltaire's century."
The Enlightenment took place in Europe in the18th century, first in Britain, then in France, Germany and Russia, and then in the Netherlands, Belgium and other countries. Compared with other countries, the Enlightenment in France is the most powerful, combative and far-reaching, and it can be called a model of the Enlightenment in Western Europe.
Literally speaking, the Enlightenment is a movement of enlightening ignorance, opposing ignorance and advocating the popularization of culture and education. But in essence, it is a movement to publicize bourgeois political ideology, not just a literary movement. It is the continuation and development of bourgeois anti-feudalism, anti-asceticism and anti-church struggle during the Renaissance, which directly laid the ideological foundation for 1789 French Revolution. Enlightenment thinkers took over the banner of anti-feudalism and anti-church from humanists, further proved the irrationality of feudal system in theory, and put forward a set of philosophical theories, political programs and social reform programs, demanding the establishment of a society based on "rationality". They opposed tyranny with political freedom, religious oppression with freedom of belief, destroyed Catholic authority and religious idols with deism and atheism, opposed the view of "divine right of monarch" with the slogan of "natural human rights" and opposed the hierarchical privilege of nobles with "everyone is equal before the law". They used these ideas to inspire and educate the masses, overthrow the rule of feudalism, and then establish bourgeois political power. The above thought is called enlightenment thought, and if it is spread, it is called enlightenment movement. Enlightenment is not only the continuation and deepening of the anti-feudal and anti-church struggle of the emerging bourgeoisie in the Renaissance, but also the theoretical preparation stage of the bourgeois political revolution. If we compare it with the Renaissance, it will be clearer. First of all, from the aspect of anti-feudalism, the anti-feudalism of the Renaissance mainly opposed the separatist state of feudal lords and demanded the establishment of a unified monarchy in the country in order to develop the capitalist economy under the protection of kingship. In the Enlightenment, the bourgeoisie has completed the process of primitive accumulation of capital, and further demanded to gain political power and establish a capitalist political system. Anti-feudalism in the Renaissance focused on ideology and ethics. The Enlightenment paid attention to the nature of political system and regime.
Secondly, from the aspect of anti-church, the Renaissance mainly exposed the corruption of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages, condemned the evil of monasteries against humanity, demanded religious reform, abolished cumbersome religious ceremonies and advocated simpler etiquette. During the Enlightenment, due to the development of materialism and natural science, anti-church was more thorough than during the Renaissance, and it had risen to the height of deism and atheism.
Thirdly, judging from the connotation of humanistic thought, the Renaissance emphasized anti-asceticism, demanded individual liberation, persisted in the world and faced reality. In the enlightenment era of18th century, the focus of humanism shifted to advocating political principles such as "freedom, equality and fraternity". Because the Enlightenment is a political and ideological revolutionary movement, the participants in the Enlightenment are by no means limited to writers. In addition, there are four French Enlightenment writers, such as Goodsdorfer, Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau, British philosopher Locke, scientist Newton, German aestheticians Lessing and Elder, and Dutch philosopher Spinoza. , all belong to the ranks of enlightenment thinkers.
Similarly, from the perspective of literary style and method, realism in the enlightenment period is a continuation of realism in the Renaissance period, but it has made new development. Its characteristics are not vivid and rich plots, nor characterization of characters, but more political. Writers consciously integrate their political thoughts into literary works. These enlightenment works have become the spiritual weapons for the bourgeoisie and the feudal class to compete for political power, and they are the "encyclopedia" for spreading the bourgeois world outlook. The language in the works is not poetic, but fluent and eloquent political prose, which is logical, inspiring and combative. Some works, because of their profound and strong philosophical significance, have turned them into fictional philosophical essays. The works of enlightenment writers all have the characteristics of pure rationality.
From 17 to 19, the ideological trend against religious obscurantism and feudal absolutism rose all over Europe. Thinkers in the Enlightenment believed that the reason why society did not progress and people were ignorant was mainly because religious forces dominated and bound the people's spirit. In order to change this situation, we must establish a rational and scientific authority. They believe that human rationality is the measure of everything, and things that do not conform to human rationality have no right to exist. They advocate spreading scientific knowledge to enlighten people's minds and get rid of religious superstitions, thus enhancing human welfare. They opposed feudal autocracy and advocated freedom, equality and democracy. In their view, feudal autocracy stifled free thought, leading to social inequality and cultural and economic backwardness. Therefore, they strongly advocate "natural human rights" and advocate people's participation in politics and equality before the law. The ideas of freedom, equality and democracy advocated by the Enlightenment, especially in the18th century, had a direct and far-reaching impact on the American War of Independence and the French Revolution, and occupied an important position in the history of political thought.
French enlightenment
1 rebel against authority (French philosophers were attracted by Newton's cosmic physics and inspired by Locke's political philosophy. Inspired by Descartes, everyone must find the answer to the question by himself. Part of the slogan was aimed at teachers, kings and nobles at that time. )
Rationalism (1789 French Revolution. Emerging natural science proves that nature is dominated by acceptability. Most philosophers in the enlightenment period, like ancient humanists such as Socrates and Stoicism, firmly believed in human rationality. Therefore, the French Enlightenment period is called "the age of reason". Philosophers believe that they have the responsibility to lay the foundation for morality, religion and ethics according to the unchangeable reason of human beings. )
The Enlightenment ("Enlightenment") aroused people's ignorance in order to build a better society. Because of material and superstition, people live a poor and oppressed life. The school system began in the Middle Ages, while pedagogy began in the Enlightenment. )
Cultural optimism (irrational behavior and ignorant practices) will be replaced by "civilized" human nature sooner or later. All the developments are not good. Philosophers in the Enlightenment believed that once rationality was developed and knowledge was popularized, human nature would make great progress. )
5 Return to Nature (Some people put forward the slogan of "Return to Nature". Human reason is a gift from nature, not a product of religion or "civilization". Rousseau put forward the slogan that "human beings should return to nature", thinking that adults should try their best to keep their children in an innocent "natural" state. )
6 natural religion (people think that religion must be naturalized, and religion must coexist harmoniously with the rationality of "nature". At that time, many people were struggling to establish the so-called "natural religion". At that time, many materialists didn't believe in God and called themselves atheists, but most philosophers in the Enlightenment thought it was irrational to deny the existence of God, because the world was too organized to exist without God. Newton held this view. Similarly, these philosophers in the Enlightenment believed that it was reasonable to believe that the soul was immortal. Like Descartes, they believe that whether a person has an immortal soul is not a question of faith, but a question of rationality. )
7 Human Rights (1789, the French National Assembly adopted the Declaration of Human Rights and Civil Rights, which established the principle of "inviolability of individual rights". 1787 At noon, condorcet, a philosopher of the Enlightenment, published a paper on women's rights. He advocated that women also have "natural rights" like men. During the French Revolution in 1789, women actively rebelled against the old feudal system. For example, it was some women who led the demonstration and forced the king to leave Versailles. Later, women's groups were established in Paris. In addition to demanding the same right of participation as men, they also demanded that the marriage law be amended to improve women's social status. But they didn't get these rights. )
Kant is answering this question: What is the Enlightenment? The article uses the mature/immature opposition, which seems to echo. Bonhoeffer also discussed the decline of religion in the adult world. 」
The industrial revolution is sometimes called the industrial revolution (in recent years, some scholars think that these two concepts are different), which refers to the early course of capitalist industrialization, that is, capitalist production has completed the transition from workshop handicraft industry to machine industry. It is a production and scientific and technological revolution in which machines replace manpower and large-scale factory production replaces manual production in individual workshops.
Some people think that the industrial revolution started around 1750, but it didn't really flourish until 1830. Most people think that the industrial revolution originated in central England. /kloc-in the middle of the 0/8th century, after the Englishman Watt improved the steam engine, a series of technological revolutions caused a great leap from manual labor to power machine production. Then spread to England and the whole European continent,19th century spread to North America.
The industrial revolution is determined by the objective requirements of capitalist economic development. (1) The bourgeois revolution abolished the feudal system, eliminated all kinds of constraints that were not conducive to the development of capitalism, and created an important political premise for the industrial revolution; (2) the feudal system and small-scale peasant economy in agriculture were eliminated, which provided sufficient labor force and domestic market for the development of large capitalist industries; (manifested in the enclosure movement in Britain) (3) The primitive accumulation process of capitalism provided a large number of free labor and huge monetary capital (colonization) necessary for capitalist industries; (4) The long-term development of handicraft industry in capitalist workshops has prepared technical conditions for the emergence of large machine production.
It is generally believed that steam engine, coke and steel are the four major factors contributing to the accelerated development of industrial revolution technology.
Before Watt improved the steam engine, the power needed for the whole production depended on manpower and animal power. With the invention and improvement of the steam engine, factories are no longer built beside rivers or streams. Since the invention of the steam engine, many jobs that used to rely on manpower and manual labor have been replaced by mechanized production. The industrial revolution is an unparalleled great change in the general political revolution. Its influence involves all aspects of human social life, bringing great changes to human society, playing an irreplaceable role in promoting the process of human modernization and pushing mankind to a brand-new age of steam.
The industrial revolution also had an important impact on the scientific development of19th century. Previous scientific research was rarely used in industrial production. With the development of industrial revolution, the boundary between engineers and scientists is getting smaller and smaller, and more engineers are immersed in scientific research. In the past, scientists were mostly children of nobles or rich people, but now many children from industrialized areas and working class have become scientists. They are more interested in chemistry and electricity, which also promotes the development of these disciplines.
This term was first put forward by Engels, which refers to the technical and economic transformation from manual production to large machine production in Britain from the end of 18 to the beginning of 19 century, and then gradually spread to all countries in the world. The industrial revolution is an important stage in the history of capitalist development, which has achieved an important transformation from a traditional agricultural society to a modern industrial society. The industrial revolution is a change in production technology and a profound change in social relations. In production technology, it makes machines replace manual labor; Factories have replaced manual workshops. From the perspective of social relations, it clearly divides society into two opposing classes-the industrial bourgeoisie and the industrial proletariat. 17 and 18 centuries, the victory of bourgeois revolution in Britain and France cleared the way for the development of productive forces, and the development of handicraft industry in capitalist workshops and the invention of science and technology prepared the conditions for the transition to machine industry. With the expansion of the market, the workshop manual based on manual technology can no longer meet the needs of the market, and the bourgeoisie widely adopts new technologies in pursuit of profits. The industrial revolution (18) began in Britain in 1960s and cotton textile industry, and was further developed in 1980s due to the invention and use of the steam engine. After Britain, France, the United States and other countries also completed the industrial revolution in the middle of19th century. It has greatly promoted the development of social productive forces, consolidated the emerging capitalist system, caused changes in the social structure and the relationship between the East and the West, and had a tremendous impact on the course of world history. Later, some scholars put forward the theory of "multiple industrial revolutions", for example,/kloc-the second industrial revolution in the late 9th century and the third industrial revolution in the late 20th century.