Who are the original inhabitants of America?
Many people know about the Indian massacre. Originally, Indians were indigenous people in North America, and their lives should be very good. But with the influx of Europeans into North America, they began to plunder the interests and freedom of Indians and sell them as slaves. What was the process of this Indian war? It is shameful for the United States to slaughter Indians in the Indian War. There used to be many Indians living in the United States, but now there are no more than 200 thousand Indians in the whole United States.
According to the British "Daily Mail" reported in July 12, the early Americans were mainly composed of immigrants from other continents. /kloc-During the Ice Age 0/5000 years ago, some Siberian immigrants crossed the continental bridge, came to North America from Asia, and settled in the central and southern regions, forming the ancestors of the first generation of Americans, namely Indians. The oldest native American? . So most Americans are of Siberian descent. In addition, the Asian ancestors of the second and third generation Native Americans also migrated through the continental bridge. Slightly different from the population distribution of the first generation, the latter two generations of immigrants only distributed in northern North America, becoming the later Eskimos and Chipewyan people in Canada, mainly speaking Nadine (North American Indian language family).
However, scientists have confirmed that most Americans are descendants of the first generation of immigrants, but the genetic composition also contains a small number of genetic elements of the second and third generations of immigrants. In addition, the latter two generations of immigrants also inherited a large number of genes from the first generation of Asian immigrants, including Eskimos accounting for 50% and Chipovians accounting for 90%. Of course, scientists have made a series of investigations on the genetic composition of Americans, and the reference materials have once extended to Europe and Africa. Finally, it turns out that Americans on the North American continent today are a combination of three generations of immigrants from Asia.
Indians are the most primitive inhabitants of America.
About 20,000 years ago, some hunting tribes from Asia chased the cattle all the way, crossed the Asian-American intercontinental bridge in Bellingstratt today, and came to the American continent, becoming the earliest American immigrants in history. Time goes by, and it's 1492, the Spanish explorer Christopher? Christopher Columbus? Did you find it? In the New World, there are about 654.38 million+500,000 indigenous people living in the continental United States. Columbus mistakenly thought that the SanSalvador in the Bahamas where he arrived was the legendary east indies, so he called it Native American? Indians? (Indian).
There are 562 Indian tribes in the United States, scattered in 48 States and Alaska, with a total area of 22.4 million hectares. The largest 65,438+02 Indian tribes are Cherokee (369,035) and Navajo (225,298). Sioux) 10732 1+0, Chippewa) 105988, Chocto 8623/kloc-0, Pueblo) 55330, Apache (. There are 50,888 rumbies, 45,872 Cricks, 37,992 Blackford and 265,438 Chickasaw.
Why did Americans kill their ancestors in those days?
In the process of the establishment and rise of the United States, the massacre of Indians in the19th century was the most criticized, which became one of the most powerful weapons for the world to expose and criticize the hypocrisy of American imperialists, and even the traditional American holiday Thanksgiving Day suffered greatly. But? There is no love or hate for no reason in the world? Americans' gratitude to Indians can't happen overnight, and it can't be simply summarized by grabbing land. This article has no intention of defending the American Holocaust, but only wants to review the historical events that span as long as 300 years and are related to the hegemony of Britain, France, the United States and the West over North America.
The connection between the two systems
/kloc-In the middle of the 0/7th century, the British colonized North America across the Atlantic Ocean and established two colonies, Plymouth and Jamestown, which later developed into today's Virginia and Massachusetts respectively. Plymouth Colony was founded by Puritans who fled from British religious persecution. They hoped to establish a paradise on earth in North America. At the beginning of their establishment, they followed the teachings of the Bible in everything and implemented the egalitarian policy of people's commune in economy. However, this practice soon appeared drawbacks. The colonists did not have the enthusiasm to engage in labor, preferring to die of internal friction rather than land reclamation, and even were too lazy to build houses for fear that others would rub against them. Coupled with the new environment and climate, the difficulty of wasteland development, and a large number of wolves, tigers, leopards and other harsh natural environments, the mortality rate of new immigrants in the first few years of colonial establishment is extremely high. Jamestown in the south has been temporarily abandoned, and Plymouth is on the verge of extinction.
At this time, it was the local Indians who helped them. With the help of Indians, the colonists gradually became familiar with the flora, fauna, climate and landforms of the New World. After abolishing the Puritans' economic policy, they quickly developed from a gathering place to a village, then to a town, and finally to Boston today. Boston also became a big port of the British North American colony at that time, and it was a relatively large timber trading center at that time. The rapid development of trade has enlivened the urban economy.
It can be said that in the early days of North American colonies, the relationship between colonists and Indians was relatively harmonious. Although Dutch colonists exchanged glass beads for a Manhattan island, most of the time the deal was fair. After all, although people have never seen glass, the prices of cattle, sheep, livestock, wood and food are still very clear. At that time, in the eyes of European colonists, Indians were very clever people, although they were barbarians who did not believe in God. This is quite different from their attitude towards African blacks. Blacks can be slaves, but Indians can't. The inability of Indians to assimilate has also become one of the reasons why they were slaughtered by Americans.
At that time, the biggest difference between European colonists and Indians was the difference in lifestyle and social organization mode. Economically, colonists mainly engaged in agriculture, while Indians engaged in grazing. Not only that, in the eyes of Indians, farming is done by women, and the life of arrogant Indian men is mainly riding horses and whipping around. Politically, the colonists copied their own system to organize the government, parliament and court in the New World, while the Indians still lived a tribal life, and tribal leaders mainly made decisions on major issues and minor issues. The biggest difference lies in land ownership. European colonists are all advocates of private ownership, bringing a whole set of land division, measurement, registration and ownership systems from Europe, and gradually forming a complete system? Property right chain? . The current title deeds in the United States can be found in the historical transaction records of the local government, while the land in the thirteen eastern States can be traced back to the royal grant at the earliest, and then the merger and purchase handed down from generation to generation has been passed down to the present.
This land system does not exist among Indians. Until now, the Indian concept of land is collective ownership, and land is owned by tribes. Because they are collectively owned, they don't have the concept of the size of the land owned by individuals. The size of the collective land area depends more on the fairy tales handed down from generation to generation, that is? This land has been ours since ancient times? This vague expression, not the title deed and transaction record in black and white. If Indian tribes are adjacent, there may be a general sphere of influence because of conflicts. If they are far apart, they hardly know where the outer edge of their land is. Plus they are engaged in animal husbandry, so they don't need and can't have a fixed area, that is? Living on weeds? So they don't care about the gains and losses of one island and one place. This may also be the reason why they think it is worthwhile to exchange Manhattan for glass beads. First of all, this land may not belong to them, and this tiny place is not suitable for grazing. Let's leave now. In their view, maybe the Dutch talent is second.
The Seven Years' War between Britain and France
If the Indians have done anything wrong, it is that every time the two sides in the conflict choose to take sides, they always take the wrong side.
Because Indians don't have the concept that there is only one home in a country, their tribes will not consider other tribes when making decisions, and more often they act for their own interests. Their behavior is more like the famous German mercenaries at that time, working hard for the money and goods of all parties to the war. Coincidentally, Germany at that time was only a geographical concept, divided into hundreds of independent kingdoms and polis. As a brave nation, they are favored by Britain and France, and a considerable number of Indians from both sides participated in the war. Because France's colonies in North America are as desolate as Canada, with a small immigrant population and greater dependence on the influence of North American Indians than Britain, in American textbooks, the Seven-Year War is also called? The war against France and Indians? .
At that time, the British North American colonists, later Americans, had sprouted an independent national consciousness. As subjects of Britain, they actively participated in the battlefield, and the Indian's refuge in France, the enemy country, also raised the contradiction between private individuals to the level between countries. Moreover, the Indians who stayed in North America were more of a threat to the North American colonists than the French who were beaten back. To make matters worse, the war broke out in the disputed area of Ohio, which bordered Virginia, the largest colony in North America at that time. Coincidentally, this is none other than Washington, the first president of the United States in the future. At that time, as a major, he was ordered by the governor of Virginia to submit a letter of protest to the French commander. On his way back, he was attacked by the French-Indian Coalition forces. Washington was weak and forced to surrender. Today, 22 years later, the United States declared its independence. In the subsequent war, the harassment of Virginia by Indians under the leadership or encouragement of the French angered the upper class of Virginia. These people will be the backbone of the future war of independence, the leader of the Constitutional Convention, and the first 30 years of the United States? Virginia dynasty? Founder.
North American War of Independence
There are many reasons for the outbreak of the North American War of Independence, but Britain's tax increase and restrictions on westward advancement are definitely the first two reasons, and both can be traced back to the Seven-Year War. It was because Britain was poor that it moved the idea of colonies and asked them to pay taxes for the protection they received from Britain. The contradictions between the two sides accumulated more and more, and soon the horn of freedom sounded in thirteen States, and the American people's war against British independence began. Unfortunately, as an ally of Britain, Indians once again stood on the opposite side of the American people.
Although Indians didn't play much role in the war of independence, the fact that they colluded with Britain has given Americans enough reason to regard them as threats around them. By the so-called sofa, others are not allowed to snore and sleep. India's repeated actions against Americans have completely poisoned the relationship between the two sides. However, because some Indians in Maine joined the Continental Army and made outstanding achievements, some Indian soldiers were even listed as captains, and finally the contradiction between the two sides did not break out.
To make matters worse, the Indians were soon sold by the British. With the increasing experience in dealing with Europeans, Indians gradually have a vague concept of land ownership, although what kind? From the sea to the sea is our pasture? Exaggerated idea, but this land is no longer an uninhabited land in their view. However, in the armistice agreement signed by Britain and the United States, neither side took India's request seriously, or India's request was not successfully conveyed to the contracting parties. It can be said that the Anglo-American Peace Agreement is a18th century? Munich agreement? Britain, the United States, France and other countries and the West take this opportunity to divide the power of North America into treaties. Britain owns Canada, the United States occupies the east coast, Spain is the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and France is the hinterland of North America.
In the early days of America
1789, Washington was sworn in as the new federal president. The most striking diplomatic activity on his agenda is to repair relations with the Indian Union. The new constitution entrusts the power to maintain Indian relations to the federal congress, and prohibits States from contacting Indian tribes privately. Therefore, Washington hopes to eradicate the long-standing hostile relationship between the two sides through a unified diplomatic contract, and at the same time cut off Britain's claws in North America. To this end, Washington urgently called Jefferson, who is about to step down as ambassador to France and prepare to be the first secretary of state, to return to China immediately to preside over the negotiations.
For more than thirty years, Washington has been dealing with Indians on various occasions. In his view, Indians are a dying people, and they are either dying out, moving westward or being completely assimilated by Americans. The Indians at that time were different from the Indians we see now. They seemed to be at a standstill in time. They have a strong thirst for knowledge. They all quickly learned western weapons, medical care and technology. Although they still have a deep-rooted rejection of agriculture, they are likely to gradually integrate into the new industrial society after the United States enters industrialization. An obvious evidence is that in the later 18 12 war, Indian tribal leaders were all mixed-race people influenced by western culture. Judging from the name WilliamWeatherford, he can't tell that he is an Indian at all.
More importantly, ordering the Secretary of State and the Secretary of War to attend the negotiations means that Washington regards Indian affairs as a part of foreign affairs, which invisibly recognizes the national attribute of Indian tribes. This attitude of Washington can also be seen from the practice of submitting the India-Pacific agreement to the Senate for approval later, because according to the Constitution, only diplomatic agreements need Senate approval. Then the French Revolution broke out. What about the situation in Europe? Rain is coming? As a former ambassador to France, Secretary of State Jefferson was more involved in the political situation in Europe. HenryKnox, the first secretary of war, was once a knowledgeable bookstore owner, and has always been an important adviser to Washington on Indian affairs, so Indian affairs were authorized by Congress to be assigned to the Ministry of War. This dislocation of the division of functions also contributed to the final tragedy of the Indians, because not every war minister had the experience of a Confucian general who abandoned his pen and joined the army like henry knox.
The negotiation with India from 65438 to 0789 was a major event in the United States at that time. Almost all Indian tribal leaders gathered in new york, the then capital, and were welcomed by the people of new york. Washington even arranged a grand parade and a formal state banquet, which is rare for Washington, which is committed to building a frugal and harmonious country. At that time, the high-standard treatment of the federal government even made the British and French ambassadors to the United States jealous, thinking that it was too flattering to these barbarians. It can be seen from all angles that Washington attaches great importance to this negotiation and has made many concessions and guarantees. For example, when a tribal leader wrote to Washington to protest the American occupation of their land, Washington promised in writing that bilateral agreements would restrain this illegal act. All the land protected by the agreement is yours, and only by your own transfer can you change the owner of the land. ? Moreover, in order to help the Indians progress, Washington even sent Christian missionaries to teach them the meaning of private property rights and make them pay attention to their land. Not only that, the agreement also proposed that the United States would provide technical support for the agricultural development of Indian tribes to help them progress from barbaric society to civilized society, and each Indian who planted corn would receive an annual subsidy of $250, which was a huge sum at that time. The following year, Congress legislated to restore the British practice, forbidding private purchase of Indian land and punishing crimes committed on Indian land.
But the situation quickly got out of hand. Washington's unpopular practice was resisted by the state government. Georgia committed crimes against the wind and transferred 24 million acres of Indian tribal land without authorization, ignoring congressional bills and presidential decrees promulgated by Washington. With the precedent of Georgia, new york soon introduced an independent Indian policy and negotiated directly with local Indian tribes. Massachusetts followed closely, negotiating with Indian tribes on Maine's independent statehood. This series of acts challenging the authority of the Federation and the Constitution left Washington at a loss. Finally, Washington even published an open letter to Che Loki tribe in 1796, assuring the other party that the federal government would abide by the agreement and safeguard the integrity of Che Loki as a nation and country.
However, in the face of the influx of immigrants, Washington's assurances were quickly covered by louder protests. At that time, the federal government did not have a standing army, and it was even more impossible to fight the civil war with the most experienced militia in new york and Massachusetts. With the fall of Washington, the honeymoon period of the United States and India in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China also ended. Later, the inaction of the federal government once again pushed Indian tribes into the arms of the British. However, because Washington was keen to adopt a neutral and pro-British approach in the French revolutionary war and abandoned the French who helped the United States in the war of independence, the relationship between Britain and the United States temporarily warmed up.
Viruses and weapons
What killed the Indians was all kinds of viruses and bacteria brought by European colonists. Many diseases that Europeans have developed antibodies to, such as chicken pox and smallpox, are fatal to Indians who have never been exposed to them before. And with the progress of medicine, Europeans have gradually found ways to control many diseases, but Indians who uphold the traditional lifestyle do not accept these western medicine treatments, so they are helpless when diseases break out. Many diseases were not maliciously spread by Europeans, and European colonists themselves were deeply troubled by various diseases. The most typical example is the yellow fever that breaks out every spring and summer. At this time, every city in the United States will be empty, and even the daily operation of the Philadelphia federal government cannot be guaranteed. This is also the origin of the habit that Congress has a holiday every summer, because they return home to avoid the epidemic at this time of the year.
Of course, it is not uncommon to use diseases as biological weapons, but this is mainly a crime committed by the British army during the Seven-Year War. The bedding of chickenpox patients was given as gifts or commodities to Indian tribes allied with the French army, which led to the mass death of Indians. But we know that this primitive chemical and biological weapon is usually used once, and these methods are useless when survivors have antibodies. The British don't have so many pathogens that they can use it many times. Moreover, this method only needs to be used once, because these survivors have become a new source of infection and will continue to spread to members of other tribes or new tribes, while Indians refuse to accept modern medical treatment, making infectious diseases incurable. The Biological and Chemical Weapons Convention was still a pipe dream at that time because of the barbarism of the western colonists themselves and the fact that the civilized forces that could restrain them had not yet developed. This method adopted by the colonists against the enemy was completely in line with their own moral standards at that time, just as Zhao Si's 100,000 troops were killed in vain, which was in line with the moral standards at that time or the cold realistic standards. To expect them by today's standards is only daydreaming for us.