Students are the main body of learning, and the learning effect of students is the starting point and destination of teachers' teaching work. Only when teachers teach the law can students learn effectively. The general view is that teachers can do a good job of teaching as long as they master the laws, principles and methods of teaching, which is reasonable. However, if we don't know the psychological basis of these laws, principles and methods, it is not good to apply them. In practice, teachers mechanically apply laws, principles and methods, but it is not uncommon for teaching to have little effect. This shows that the concrete and flexible application of teaching theory can not be separated from teachers' mastery of teaching psychology theory. Students' learning is mainly "possessive" learning of predecessors' knowledge and experience.

Modern teaching psychology believes that this kind of learning should go through four stages: understanding, memory, transfer and application of knowledge. People used to think that understanding was the key stage. However, the study of learning psychology by modern cognitive school shows that understanding, memory and application are inseparable from transfer. They are not only the process of migration, but also the result and performance of migration. Migration is ubiquitous and is the most critical part in the process of knowledge learning.

This is the latest achievement that foreign educational psychologists have devoted themselves to studying and discussing the transfer theory for decades. At present, many comrades in China also realize that students' learning problems are complicated, but as long as they grasp the transfer well, teaching can achieve "orderly teaching" and "orderly learning", so that students can draw inferences from one another. Therefore, "teaching for migration" has become an attractive slogan popular in today's educational circles. Based on the above point of view, this paper tries to find out the main factors that affect transfer on the basis of introducing relevant transfer theories, and provide measures to promote the generation of learning transfer, so that teachers can apply it in classroom teaching practice.

First, the migration theory and its analysis

In psychology, the so-called transfer refers to the influence of one kind of learning on another. It is realized on the basis of learners' analysis and summary of new topics by using existing cognitive structures. Its essence is a process of revealing the same essence of old and new topics. There are two kinds of migration: forward migration and reverse migration. The influence of pre-learning topics on post-learning topics is called forward migration, and vice versa. Both forward and backward migration have positive and negative aspects. The place where one kind of learning promotes another kind of learning is called positive transfer, and vice versa. Psychologists use "percentile table method" or "saving method" to measure the transfer effect through several experimental designs such as "end-to-end test method" or "successive practice method".

The research on migration abroad mainly focuses on the following questions: (1) What is the essence of migration? What kind of teaching content or teaching method is most helpful for transfer? (2) How to correctly handle the relationship between knowledge, skills and intelligence can make teaching produce good transfer effect.

According to many researchers' different answers to the above questions, it can be divided into two categories: traditional transfer theory and modern cognitive transfer theory.

(A) the traditional migration theory

The traditional transfer theory mainly refers to the function-form training theory, the same element theory and the experience generalization theory.

1. Function-form training theory

Function-form training theory is an early transfer theory, which originated from functional psychology founded by German psychologist Wolff (C.). The main points of this theory are as follows. (1) Everyone's innate functions such as attention, memory, imagination and reasoning ability can only be developed through training. (2) If a function is developed through training, it can be automatically transferred to other functions, thus developing the whole function. (3) It is not important whether the learning content of training transfer meets the actual needs, because it will be forgotten; It is important to see the value of training in developing various senses. Accordingly, the function-form training theory understands transfer as a process in which a certain psychological function develops through training and is transferred to other learning, thus developing other functions and overall functions.

2.* * * the same factor theory

* * * The theory of identity factors was first put forward by Thorndike and Woodworth (R.S.). This theory opposes the function-form training theory and puts forward the following proposition. (1) The transfer of various functions that everyone is born with is not or rarely affected by training, and the transfer mainly lies in the improvement of training methods. (2) There is still negative transfer in learning and training. "The improvement of any single psychological function may not necessarily improve the ability of other functions with the same name, but sometimes it may damage it ... Due to various factors, the transfer of training may or may not be obtained." (3) Transfer mainly depends on the same elements in the two learning activities. "Two functions must contain the same molecule, and then this change can affect that. How much the second function changes depends on how many * * * molecules are in the two functions. " According to the above viewpoint, the theory of * * * isomorphism holds that the essence of transfer is the * * * isomorphic connection in learners' brains from four aspects: the concept of purpose, the concept of method, the concept of general principles and the basic facts.

3. Empirical classification theory (summary)

Empirical classification theory was put forward by Judd (C.H). The main points of migration theory are as follows. (1) The same * * component in the two learning activities is a necessary prerequisite for migration. However, the key to transfer lies in the generalization of the same factors in learning topics. (2) Transfer does not happen automatically, it depends on the learners' mastery and application of the principle of * * * in the two learning activities. (3) "generalization" is generally guided by teachers, so the generation of transfer is closely related to teachers' teaching methods, and the results of generalization-principles and methods should be mastered by students. Therefore, the "orientation" of learners' application of principles and laws also affects transfer. Therefore, empirical categorization theory describes the essence of transfer as the result of learners' generalization of the same factors in two kinds of learning activities-the application and transfer of learning principles and rules. Judd said in his classic experimental result of 1908 "Underwater Shooting": "Theory (the refraction principle mentioned by the teacher in the experiment) once composed all relevant experiences-the experiences outside water, deep water and shallow water-into the whole ideological system. After students master and understand the actual situation on the background of theoretical knowledge, they can use the summarized experience to quickly solve urgent problems.

(B) Modern cognitive transfer theory

Modern cognitive transfer theory is represented by Bruner and Ausubel. This theoretical science comprehensively explains the phenomenon and essence of students' migration. The main points are as follows.

1. All new meaningful learning is based on the original learning, and learning that is not affected by the original cognitive structure of learners does not exist. Because students' learning and classroom teaching are systematic and coherent, the learning process runs through migration from beginning to end.

2. Transfer is not one-way, but two-way, that is, two kinds of learning activities influence each other; Its influence may be promotion (positive migration) or hindrance (negative migration).

3. Transfer is a process in which learners use the concept of the original cognitive structure to analyze and summarize new topics, that is, the "assimilation process" between cognitive structure and new topics.

4. The clarity, stability, generality, inclusiveness and discrimination of learners' cognitive structure affect learning transfer; In addition, the guiding role of teachers in students' learning methods can not be ignored. Modern cognitive transfer theory defines transfer as: learners use the original concept of cognitive structure, summarize the content of new topics through thinking and analysis, and transfer their learning on the basis of revealing the same essence of old and new topics.

(3) A brief comment

The author tries to make a brief comment on the above migration theories in order to find out the main factors affecting migration.

1. Function-form training theory has an idealized understanding of human psychological essence; It is also wrong to think that the essence of learning transfer is "training one function to transfer and develop another function and its whole"; Based on the learning connection theory of stimulus (S)- response (R), this paper denies the role of learners' consciousness (O) and ignores the learning content. It is even more inappropriate to describe migration as a process of training automation. However, it is valuable to develop students' attention, memory, imagination and reasoning ability in the training of learning. His view of attaching importance to practice and training to promote transfer is also valid in some learning activities; In addition, his thought that "the function of education is to forget everything learned" has made the mistake of ignoring the necessity of students mastering basic knowledge, but it has a reasonable core that emphasizes the development of students' intelligence. If our teaching pays attention to both knowledge learning and the "legacy" of students' ability, we can achieve the teaching purpose of "teaching is to achieve the purpose of not teaching". Function-form training theory gives us the following enlightenment: (1) Practice and training are one of the conditions for migration; (2) Practical training should be devoted to developing and cultivating students' intelligence; (3) In the past, people's evaluation of this theory was neither objective nor fair.

2.* * * The view of the same factor theory on human psychological essence is also idealistic; It does not recognize the participation of consciousness in learning activities, and understands transfer as "the connection between old and new topics and factors in the brain", which is both wrong and simple and mechanical. However, it notes the influence of the improvement of training methods and methods on transfer, and proves through experiments that the more the same elements of the two learning activities, the easier it is to transfer, but it is an indelible contribution. It tells us: (1) * * The same factor is another condition that affects migration; (2) Only by paying attention to methods can learning and training be transferred smoothly.

3. Experiential categorization theory is another development and progress in the study of learning transfer theory. Because, first of all, it affirms the leading role of learners in learning activities. Secondly, the classic experiment (underwater shooting) is used to summarize the "generalization" point of view-letting students master the general knowledge principles and formulas is the key to migration. Thirdly, it points out the influence of the application of teachers' teaching methods and learners' learning orientation on transfer. These views are all desirable. But it only regards transfer as the result of generalization-students master existing principles and formulas, not the process of generalization-and it is one-sided to think that students master theoretical knowledge by themselves with thinking. Because this is a transfer theory, it is only satisfied with the same elements in the old and new topics, knowing why, not knowing why, and putting learners in a passive learning position. However, it clearly tells us that theoretical knowledge, teaching methods and learning orientation are all important conditions that affect migration.

4. Modern cognitive transfer theory is a learning theory that is more in line with the educational goals of schools. Its view is that "where there is learning, there are immigrants"; Its transfer is a process in which learners use the original concept of cognitive structure to analyze and summarize new topics. Its detailed analysis of cognitive structure reveals the relationship between internal variables and transfer, which is more scientific, progressive and perfect than empirical categorization. Because it not only shows the universality of migration, but also points out the essence of migration; It not only attaches importance to the analysis and generalization of the migration process, but also expounds the psychological mechanism of "assimilation" in migration. It not only recognizes the necessity of knowledge learning (forming cognitive structure) in transfer, but also affirms the application of intelligence in transfer. In a word, the core view of this theory that "transfer is realized by learners in the process of making full use of knowledge and positive thinking" is comprehensive and profound, which is beneficial for teachers to create a good teaching situation and use scientific teaching methods to provide students with as many inspirations as possible for "learning for transfer".

Second, the transfer theory in the application of teaching

On the basis of introducing and analyzing the transfer theory and the conditions that affect transfer, the author intends to elaborate the specific application of transfer theory in teaching from the aspects of knowledge learning and understanding, practice and learning orientation, intelligence and ability, cognitive structure and teacher guidance.

Knowledge learning, understanding and transfer

Transfer should make use of learners' original concept of cognitive structure. Learning and mastering basic knowledge is the source for students to acquire rich concepts of cognitive structure. Generally speaking, the more solid the basic knowledge, the richer and firmer the storage of cognitive structure concepts in the brain. In addition, all kinds of knowledge have some common elements and universal principles more or less. Therefore, when learning new topics, there are more ideas for students to use, and there are enough common elements for students to extract, which is naturally prone to migration. Teaching practice has also proved that most of the reasons why some students can draw inferences from others in the learning process are because they have a good grasp of basic knowledge. Knowledge is the raw material of migration, and migration without knowledge does not exist. The primary task for teachers to promote students' migration is to master and master the teaching of basic knowledge. The essence of migration is to analyze and summarize the essential relationship between old and new knowledge. Without an understanding of the essential attributes of old knowledge, we can neither generalize the essential attributes of new knowledge with principles and rules, nor form the connection between old and new knowledge, so it is difficult to produce migration. Only on the basis of understanding and learning can students grasp the essential attribute of knowledge, truly master theoretical knowledge, and flexibly use and transfer it in the study of new subjects. The research shows that the higher the students' understanding of the meaning of knowledge, the clearer the accumulated concept of cognitive structure, the stronger the generality, the clearer the degree of analysis, the faster the transfer and the wider the scope. The author believes that from the perspective of the integrity and coherence of the learning process, understanding needs to be transferred, and transfer is carried out in understanding; The essence of cognition is migration, and the two complement each other, promote each other and transform each other. Therefore, in teaching practice, it is very important for teachers to use heuristic teaching to give full play to students' main role in learning, mobilize students' enthusiasm for analyzing and summarizing their thinking ability, and improve their understanding of knowledge.

(B) Practice, learning orientation and migration

Through certain practice and training in learning, we can not only consolidate our knowledge and form mental or motor skills, but also solve problems without conscious control and quickly transfer to similar mental or motor learning activities because of the automation of skills. For example, students who have mastered grammar knowledge in Chinese learning will not only analyze sentence structure, but also have fewer sick sentences in their compositions; "You can sing even if you can't write poems by reading 300 poems of Tang Dynasty" is a well-known typical example of automatic learning transfer due to reading. In students' study, it is common that practice makes perfect and cleverness automatically migrates. However, practice and training will also have negative transfer. Because it is easy to form a single and directional skill habit, it is often difficult to carry out different learning exercises and trainings in complex and diverse learning activities. Coupled with long-term monotonous training, cortical neurons in the brain will be inhibited from excitement to protection due to energy consumption, which will also lead to a significant decline in learning efficiency. The study also shows that "plateau" phenomenon will appear between practice and training when progress is temporarily stopped. These are not conducive to migration.

From what has been said above, it is not difficult for us to see that in order to make students move actively, the key is that teachers should guide and apply exercises scientifically and reasonably. At present, the popular "sea-asking" exercise is not enough, and the "dripping" exercise is not commendable. Only the practice based on students' initiative, moderation, moderation, timeliness and diversification can form the positive transfer of students' learning. Therefore, in teaching, teachers should not only pay attention to students' necessary practice and knowledge training, but also strengthen the education of practical purposes, pay attention to the arrangement of practical content and time, and guide practical methods. Learning mind, also known as learning set, refers to a dynamic state of mind that points to certain activities before some activities. Some people call it "a preparatory adaptation or reaction preparation". The transfer theory of "experience categorization theory" introduced earlier is about the positive transfer of students' minds by using general principles and laws in two learning activities with the same elements and types. However, if we always use this "fixed" thinking to solve changeable new problems, it will often lead to negative migration. Therefore, fixed study habits are not conducive to flexible learning, which we must realize. In order to promote the positive transfer of learning activities, teachers should pay attention to cultivating students' dynamic learning orientation of "proceeding from reality, seeking truth from facts and analyzing concrete problems". This mentality is conducive to solving all problems in learning. The cultivation of dynamic learning orientation depends on the improvement of students' adaptability. As the saying goes, there is no fixed method for teaching. Similarly, there is no fixed method for learning. In teaching, teachers can't just ask students to memorize and mechanically apply principles and laws, which will form a fixed problem-solving model for students; Students should be encouraged to face new topics and situations and use principles and laws flexibly to solve problems. Therefore, teachers should not only affirm students' earnest and diligent learning attitude, but also often teach them the learning methods of "improvisation" and "finding another way".

(3) intelligence, ability and migration

Intelligence generally refers to the organic combination of observation, attention, memory, imagination and reasoning ability with speed and agility. Its core is reasoning ability. Ability is the external expression of intelligence used to solve practical problems. In students' learning activities, observation plays a "portal" role in effectively perceiving knowledge; Attention plays the role of "guardian" and "organizer", arousing and maintaining the excitement of the brain; Memory acts as a "warehouse" for storing and extracting knowledge; Imagination plays the role of association and "transforms" and reorganizes knowledge; Reasoning plays the role of "thinking", analyzing, comparing, abstracting and summarizing knowledge; Wait a minute. Teaching practice has proved that highly intelligent students have strong understanding ability, transfer ability and problem-solving ability. It is also very suitable for learning various subjects and contents. This is because the application of students' intelligence not only provides superior conditions for their understanding and transfer, but also lays a good foundation for them to analyze, summarize, transform and reorganize the same essential attributes of old and new topics. Therefore, teachers must further realize that transfer is an external understanding and ability transfer, but its essence is the full use and mutual transformation of students' internal psychological intelligence. In teaching, teachers pay attention to cultivating and developing students' abilities of observation, attention, memory, imagination, reasoning and problem solving, which is conducive to the smooth transfer of students' learning.

(D) Cognitive structural variables, teacher guidance and transfer

The problem of teaching for learning universal transfer is essentially a problem of how to shape students' good cognitive structure. The so-called cognitive structure is the knowledge structure in students' minds. The main components of cognitive structure are "a set of perceptual categories", "more abstract concepts" and "subjective speculation and images", which are obtained through understanding and learning knowledge. Students' cognitive structure has its own characteristics, mainly manifested in the different variables of cognitive structure. The so-called cognitive structure variables refer to the characteristics of personal cognitive structure in content and organization. It includes the availability, distinguishability, stability and clarity of cognitive structure. Cognitive structure variables not only affect students' understanding and maintenance of learning, but also are closely related to learning transfer.

Let's try to talk about the relationship between cognitive structure and transferred variables, and its related teaching guidance.

1. Availability of cognitive structure

Usability refers to the availability of ideas that play an appropriate fixed role in the cognitive structure. If the learners' cognitive structure is highly abstract and general, which can provide a fixed point of the best relationship for the learning of new topics, then the learning contents of old and new topics can be generated or derived, or related, or "through adaptive assimilation" (including and absorbing * * *) or "adaptive assimilation" (absorbing different elements on the basis of reorganization). If there are no or only some superficial fixed concepts in the original cognitive structure that can be used to "assimilate" new knowledge, then students can only get unstable and vague meanings for new knowledge, which will lead to rapid forgetting and difficult learning transfer. This variable factor of cognitive structure can be strengthened by Ausubel's teaching method called "advance organizer". Teachers can first introduce "guidance materials" related to new topic learning into the language. Because it is more general than learning materials, it can not only make new learning tasks clear, but also act as a "cognitive bridge" between old and new knowledge. Generally speaking, teachers can organize "guidance materials" in two forms. One is declarative, that is, providing learners with the generic relationship between old and new knowledge in concise language; The second is comparison, that is, comparing the similarities and differences between old and new knowledge to enhance the differences of students' cognitive structure.

2. The identifiability of cognitive structure

Distinguishability refers to the degree of separation between the learning task of a new topic and the original conceptual system that assimilates it. Because people have a tendency to restore the memory of knowledge, in the study of new topics, the original knowledge has a preconceived tendency, that is, new knowledge is often understood as the original knowledge. If the conceptual separation and distinguishability of cognitive structure are poor, then the learning content of new topics will be replaced by the original knowledge because it cannot be clearly distinguished. If students learn English letters while learning Chinese Pinyin, when Chinese Pinyin is not firmly mastered, it will often interfere with the learning of English letters. Because of the poor discrimination of cognitive structure, this is a negative transfer in learning. In the teaching of new topics, teachers can not only improve students' recognition of knowledge by using the comparative "learning guidance materials" mentioned above, but also increase the learning volume of topics by using the method of "over-learning" to offset the "reduction" and "substitution" of original knowledge for new knowledge. In addition, cultivating students' learning intention to compare and distinguish the similarities and differences between old and new knowledge can also promote the transfer of new topic learning.

3. Stability and clarity of cognitive structure

Stability and clarity refer to the firmness and clarity of the main components of cognitive structure. Stability provides a fixed point of assimilation for new topic learning, while clarity points out the direction of assimilation for new topic learning. Ausubel and others have done research in 196 1 and 1962, and they found that students' previous knowledge is positively related to their later learning related knowledge. People realize that only consolidated and clear knowledge can be transferred. Foreign automatic teaching machines are widely used in teaching because they can closely control the degree of consolidation and the timeliness of feedback, which is conducive to increasing and enhancing the stability and clarity of the original knowledge and the "small step" migration of students. In the absence of automatic teaching machines, everything is conducive to understanding and consolidating knowledge.

From the big scientific team