Teaching methods: teaching in each class, teaching students in accordance with their aptitude, moral education, inspiration and induction, tireless teaching, consistent words and deeds; Learning methods: combine learning with thinking, learning with doing, review old things and learn new ones, be open-minded, seek truth from facts, take learning as fun, and establish the concept of lifelong learning.
2. Comenius:
/kloc-a famous Czech educator in the 0/7th century, known as "Copernicus in pedagogy". Great teaching theory focuses on the problem of teaching theory. He said that teaching theory is the art of teaching, and "great teaching theory" is the universal art of "teaching everything to all people", and it is the art of "teaching with certainty", "teaching with fun" and "teaching with thoroughness". This book clearly puts forward and demonstrates a series of teaching principles and rules in detail, puts forward and discusses various teaching methods (including general teaching methods and subject-specific teaching methods), draws up the curriculum of schools at all levels, establishes the basic organizational form of school teaching, formulates the principles and requirements for compiling teaching materials, and even makes specific provisions on how teachers can have a good class. At the same time, it is pointed out that educators themselves should constantly learn and enrich themselves in order to better educate others.
3. Rousseau:
An outstanding French enlightenment thinker and educator. Amir subtitled "On Education". This book puts forward its own educational thoughts by fictional "Emily", an orphan of a noble family, and his future wife "Sophie". Its core is to cultivate new people who adapt to the ideal society in the future based on the principle of natural education. This theory is called nature education theory, and its purpose is to cultivate "natural people" whose natural nature is fully developed. He stressed that education must conform to the natural course of children's natural development, that is, follow the characteristics of children's physical and mental development, while respecting children's personality characteristics. Rousseau divided education into "natural education", "human education" and "material education", and the latter two achieved their coordination on the basis of following the former. This book also deals with some questions about the influence of heredity, environment and education on human development.
4. Dewey:
American educator and representative of pragmatism.
He advocates that education is life, school is society, and learning by doing. Dewey believes that people's participation in the real life of society is a proper way to grow physically and mentally and transform their experience. Therefore, teachers should turn the classroom of imparting knowledge into a paradise for children's activities, guide children to actively participate in activities, unconsciously develop morality and acquire knowledge in activities, and realize the transformation of life, growth and experience;
He believes that morality is the highest and ultimate goal of education. Moral process and educational process are unified. He advocated "cultivating children's moral quality through activities", followed by the requirement of combining intellectual education to achieve the purpose of moral education. Moreover, he attaches great importance to the moral education function of educational methods.
There is also the famous child-centered theory. Because traditional education focuses on teachers and textbooks rather than children's instincts and activities, it can only "train", "guide and control" and "brutally suppress" children. The way out of this problem is to shift the focus of education, that is, to transfer teachers and textbooks to children (that is, students). Some people compare this change with the significance of Copernican astronomy from the earth to the sun. For example, children become the sun, and all educational measures are centered around children (students); Children are the center and educational measures are organized around them. The child-centered theory is very similar to the current student-centered theory.
5. Tao Xingzhi:
Tao Xingzhi was the standard-bearer of China's educational reform around the May 4th Movement. He studied under Dewey, but he didn't fully absorb it and simply copied it. He founded the theory of "life education" and advocated "life is education, society is school, and teaching and learning are integrated", and advocated "creative education" and "lifelong education". Comrade Mao Zedong once awarded him the honorary title of "People's Educator", and Mr. Guo Moruo called him and Confucius "the two greatest educators in China".
Life is education. On the basis of criticizing Dewey's "education is life", Tao Xingzhi put forward the ideas of "life is education", "society is school" and "integration of teaching and learning", and formed the educational ideological system of "life is education". Tao Xingzhi believes that education and life are the same process, education is contained in life, and education must be combined with life to play its role. The core content of "life is education" is "education is what you live". He said: "Life education is innate and walks with life. Born to break; Graduation is the coffin. " It can be seen that the "education" mentioned by Tao Xingzhi is a kind of lifelong education, and he resolutely opposes dead education, dead schools and dead textbooks without "life-centered".
Society is the school. "Society is School" comes from Dewey's School is Society. Tao Xingzhi believes that under the idea of "school is society", there are too few things in schools, so it is better to advocate "society is school" in turn. Educational materials, educational methods, educational tools and educational environment can be greatly increased, as can students and teachers. "Society is school" and "life is education" are closely related.
Teaching integration.
This is the teaching theory of life education theory. In Tao Xingzhi's words, this is the explanation of life phenomenon, that is, the explanation of education phenomenon. In life, doing things, learning for your own progress and being a teacher are just three aspects of life. Tao Xingzhi's "doing" is different from Dewey's "learning by doing". Tao Xingzhi's "behavior" is based on "behavior" and seeks knowledge by behavior, emphasizing that "behavior" is the source of knowledge.
6. Vygotsky:
Vygotsky is one of the greatest psychologists in the world in the 20th century in the Soviet Union, and is called "Mozart in the field of psychology". His theory of "zone of proximal development" is almost well known. Vygotsky's theory can be summarized as the following five principles:
Man is a social entity from birth and a product of social history.
People's means to meet various needs are mastered through continuous learning the day after tomorrow.
Education and teaching is the form of human psychological development.
People's psychological development is carried out in the process of mastering the means and ways to meet people's needs.
The communication between people is initially manifested as an external form, and later internalized as an internal psychological form.
The concept of the zone of proximal development:
The concept of zone of proximal development was put forward by Vygotsky when 193 1- 1932 applied general genetic laws to children's learning and development. Vygotsky defined the recently developed area as "the gap between the actual development level and the potential development level". The actual development level depends on children's ability to solve problems independently, while the potential development level refers to children's ability to solve problems under the guidance of adults or in cooperation with powerful peers. Vygotsky divides students' ability to solve problems into three categories: students can do it independently, but even if they are helpful, they can't show it, and between these two extremes, they can show it with the help of others The relationship between teaching and development is that teaching promotes development, and teaching should be ahead of development. Of course, what he highlights is the dominant position of teachers, who are the promoters of students' psychological development; At the same time, he made clear the significance of peer influence and cooperative learning to children's psychological development; Inspired the dynamic evaluation of children's learning potential.
7. Jerome Bruner:
Bruner is a famous American psychologist and educator. He used the research results of constructivism and cognitive psychology to construct a teaching theory based on cognitive psychology research. In Bruner's view, students' mental development is influenced by the environment, which in turn affects the environment, but mainly follows their own unique cognitive procedures alone. Teaching is to help or form the growth of students' wisdom or cognition. In his view, the task of educators is to transform knowledge into a form suitable for developing students and design teaching on this basis. Therefore, he advocated using the method of discovery learning. He believes that discovery learning has the following characteristics:
One is to emphasize the learning process. Bruner believes that students are active explorers in the teaching process. The role of teachers is to form a situation in which students can explore independently, rather than providing ready-made knowledge. Students are not passive recipients of knowledge, but active knowledge explorers.
The second is to emphasize intuitive thinking. Bruner's discovery learning theory not only pays attention to the learning process, but also emphasizes the importance of students' intuitive thinking in learning. In his view, intuitive thinking is different from analytical thinking. It does not follow carefully defined steps, but takes jumps, jumps and shortcuts to think. The formation process of intuitive thinking generally does not depend on oral information, especially on teachers' indicative language. The essence of intuitive thinking is image or imagery. Therefore, teachers should help students form rich imagination in inquiry activities to prevent premature linguistization. Instead of instructing students how to do it, let them try it themselves, that is, think while doing it.
The third is to emphasize intrinsic motivation. In Bruner's view, under the general teaching conditions, students' learning motivation is often very chaotic. Some students seek good grades for some external motives, such as to get or avoid rewards or punishments from teachers and parents, or to compete with classmates. Bruner pays more attention to forming students' internal motivation, or transforming external motivation into internal motivation. The discovery activity is helpful to stimulate students' curiosity. Students are easily driven by curiosity and show interest in exploring unknown results. So Bruner called curiosity "the prototype of students' internal motivation". Of course, Bruner did not completely deny the role of teachers when emphasizing students' internal motivation. He believes that the effect of students' learning sometimes depends on when and at what pace teachers give students corrective feedback, that is, students should know the results of learning in time, and if they are wrong, they should also know where they are wrong and how to correct them.
The fourth is to emphasize information extraction. Bruner holds a radical view on the memory process. He believes that the primary problem of human memory is not storage, but extraction. Although this may be impossible in biology, students are required to do so in real life. Because students must be able to extract information without outside help while storing information. The key to extracting information is how to organize information, know where information is stored and how to extract information.
Bruner's teaching theory: Bruner believes that a teaching theory should include five main aspects:
First, arrange the best learning experience for learners in advance. Bruner believes that teaching should pay attention to students' intentions and goals in learning and turn students' skills into their own intellectual activities. In other words, the teaching content should be related to students' desire for knowledge, and the teaching process should be transformed into the process of students' active knowledge. Teachers should be good at transforming their knowledge into knowledge related to students' ideological laws, changing passive teaching process into students' active learning process, and learning what they want according to the methods chosen by students themselves. Make students not only acquire knowledge, but also master the methods of acquiring knowledge.
The second is to provide students with the best understanding of the knowledge structure. Bruner pointed out that the ultimate goal of teaching any subject or any related subject is to let students understand the structure of the subject. Every kind of knowledge has a hierarchical structure, which is accepted by everyone's coding system and can be expressed by corresponding reproduction methods. Therefore, he believes that the task of teachers is to teach students to master the structure of knowledge by using certain coding methods.
The third is a detailed explanation of the best order of the materials learned. Bruner once said that "any thought, any problem or any kind of knowledge can be described in a simple enough form so that any special learner can understand it in a recognizable form". Therefore, in short, any subject can be taught to anyone at any age in a correct and useful form. According to this idea, the task of schools and teachers is to transform knowledge into structures that students of all ages can understand, and arrange these structures in the optimal presentation order.
The fourth is the role of success or failure and the nature of rewards and punishments. Bruner acknowledges the role of reinforcement in learning, but he pays more attention to the promotion of internal motivation in learning. And "greatly reducing the importance of' external' rewards and punishments as a school learning factor". Bruner carefully analyzed two extreme states when a person tried to understand something or master a job, namely success and failure, reward and punishment. He believes that success and failure are inherent in direct work itself. Therefore, they constitute intrinsic motivation; Rewards and punishments are controlled by parents and teachers, which constitute external motivation. He believes that the intrinsic motivation of success and failure is enough to ensure the motivation of study or work. If rewards and punishments are given at this time, it will often have negative effects.
The fifth is the procedure of stimulating thoughts in the school environment. Bruner regards all the processes of knowledge acquisition as examples of problem solving. This process is divided into two steps: the first step, according to the obtained perceptual materials, puts forward the experimental hypothesis, which needs to be completed by linking new information with the inner world model based on past experience. The second is to further test the experimental hypothesis with more perceptual materials. If the two are consistent, this assumption can be established; If not, we should change our assumptions and make them consistent with the perceived facts. Bruner advocates encouraging students to carry out discovery learning with confidence in the learning process, so that students can have valuable "epiphany" in the learning process. A favorable family environment and school atmosphere will make some children become bigger "discoverers" than others. "Teachers should try their best to teach students to master their subjects firmly, so that they can become independent and motivated thinkers. When their formal school education is over, they will continue to study independently. "
8. Suhomlinski
Su Shi is a famous contemporary educational practitioner and theorist in the Soviet Union. He is known as the "master of educational thought" of the Soviet Union and enjoys a high reputation in the world. He devoted his life to rural education. He transformed an ordinary rural school, Pavlis Middle School, into an excellent school in the Soviet Union and was regarded as one of the famous experimental schools in the contemporary world. His educational theory is recognized as "living pedagogy" and "encyclopedia of school life".
Suhomlinski discussed the purpose of education from many angles, and put forward "cultivating builders of capitalism", "cultivating people with all-round development", "enlightened people", "happy people" and "qualified citizens". One of the most concentrated and profound viewpoints is to cultivate teenagers into "all-round and harmonious people and active participants in social progress." To cultivate this kind of person, it is necessary to realize the educational task of all-round development, that is, to make "intellectual education, physical education, moral education, labor education and aesthetic education penetrate and interweave with each other, so that these aspects of education present a unified and complete process."
On education
Regarding moral education, he clearly pointed out that "the core of harmonious and all-round development is noble morality". He particularly emphasized that students should have rich spiritual life and spiritual needs, and thought that "spiritual emptiness is the most terrible disaster for people". Teachers and parents are required to respect children's personality and care for them comprehensively. He put forward the idea of "let every student walk with his head held high", trying to create a good educational environment and "let the school walls speak". Regarding intellectual education, he believes that intellectual education, in terms of its essence and tasks, includes giving students systematic scientific knowledge, forming a scientific world and developing intelligence. Intellectual education is carried out in the process of acquiring knowledge. Through teaching, help students form a scientific world outlook and develop their intelligence. He proposed that students' knowledge should be based on a broad "knowledge background" and created many fresh experiences, including: giving children four-dimensional lessons; Carry out extracurricular reading; Participate in extracurricular group activities according to your hobbies. Regarding sports, he said: "Caring for health is the primary job of educators. Children's spiritual life, world outlook, intellectual development, knowledge consolidation and confidence in their own strength all depend on whether they are optimistic, happy and full of vigor. " And shouted out the slogan "health, health, one more or health". Regarding aesthetic education, he pointed out that "beauty is a powerful source of moral purity, spiritual richness and physical fitness", and we should pay close attention to the implementation of aesthetic education in the whole process of youth education. He attaches great importance to cultivating students' good feelings and shaping their good hearts, and puts forward various aesthetic education ways and methods, such as feeling beauty through watching nature, appreciating beauty through literary and artistic works, and creating beauty through hands-on labor. Children are even required to pay attention to the beauty of clothes and appearance. Regarding labor education, he clearly pointed out: "Education outside labor and education without labor do not exist and cannot exist." He believes that it is "a tragedy" to educate a student for ten years, only teach him the basic knowledge of science, never let him receive labor training, and give him a shovel to start work when he graduates.
Suhomlinski's exposition of education not only puts forward a clear educational purpose, but also puts forward five specific educational tasks.
On teaching
Suhomlinski's works not only discuss the basic theory of teaching, but also introduce and imply the physical experience of each teaching link, which basically constitutes a relatively complete set of teaching theories. Starting from the fundamental task of intellectual education, he demanded to correctly solve two pairs of contradictions in the teaching process, namely, teaching-education and teaching-development, and demanded to complete the goal and realize the overall task of harmonious development in the process of promoting the dialectical unity of contradictions.
On the unity of education and teaching. He put forward the principle of education and teaching, pointing out that this principle requires not only world outlook education and moral education, but also scientific knowledge teaching. Oppose to regard education as something isolated from study and education, and think that teaching, educating and education are unified.
On the unity of teaching and development. First of all, he emphasized that teachers and students can effectively impart and acquire knowledge through teaching, and thought that only those who master knowledge are truly happy people. Secondly, he resolutely opposes the kind of teaching that only teaches knowledge and ignores intellectual development. He said: "Teachers cram all kinds of principles, conclusions and inferences prepared in advance into children's minds, which often makes children even unable to touch the source of words used in thinking and life, and fetters their wings of fantasy, imagination and creation. Children often have energetic and proactive people and become machines that seem to be dedicated to reciting. " Therefore, he asked teachers to be good at stimulating students' thirst for knowledge, making lectures vivid, vivid and interesting, opposing "cramming", guiding students to think positively, "a real school is a kingdom of positive thinking", encouraging students with grades, and letting students experience the happiness of learning.
9. babanski
Babanski is a famous educator and teaching theory expert in the Soviet Union, and once served as the vice president of the Soviet Academy of Educational Sciences. Starting from 1960s, he took the ordinary middle school in Rostov as the experimental base, devoted himself to the research on the theory of teaching and educational process optimization, wrote a series of books on the optimization of teaching process, and formed a unique educational school of teaching process optimization.
Babanski theoretically demonstrated a new principle of teaching theory, that is, the principle of teaching optimization, expounded the essence, criteria and research methods of the optimization of teaching and education process in modern ordinary schools, and systematically pointed out the ways to implement the optimization thought in school practice.
Methodological premise of studying optimization. Babanski believes that it is the methodological premise to formulate and select the optimal educational decision-making theory to study the teaching system theory method of each component in the educational process in detail in the regular interaction. Only by adopting a systematic method can teachers consider all aspects of the whole process, that is, the tasks, contents, methods, means, forms and conditions for realizing this process. It is impossible to find a universal teaching method, teaching means or teaching form. We must evaluate the possibility of the educated, the conditions of teaching materials, school health, moral and psychological conditions, aesthetic education and other conditions in each specific situation, and we must choose the best education and teaching process plan in this situation.
Psychological basis of integrating optimization thought into school work practice. Babanski thinks that optimization is a logical stage in the development of pedagogy. It is directly based on the past achievements of pedagogy, and the achievements of psychology also promote the development of optimization thought. From the psychological point of view, the optimization of educational process is a rational and will behavior to accomplish an educational task most reasonably. Choosing the best scheme requires teachers to be especially good at thinking from the perspective of education, that is, to explore problems rather than reproduce them. Only under the condition of creative thinking can teachers choose the scheme closest to the situation from a series of possible schemes.
The essence and criterion of optimization. Babanski believes that in modern schools, the optimization of teaching and education process is to choose such a teaching method, which can make teachers and students get the best results with the least necessary time and energy. It is a clear-cut arrangement of teachers for the education process on the basis of teaching laws and principles, a conscious and scientific choice of teachers, and the best and most appropriate arrangement scheme for classroom teaching and the whole teaching process under specific conditions. When teachers consider teaching plans from this point of view, they do not simply choose one of various teaching plans for experiments, but choose the most suitable classroom teaching plan or classroom teaching method with confidence and conviction. Babanski put forward four criteria for optimization: First, under modern conditions, in terms of forming knowledge, skills, skills and certain personality characteristics, and in terms of improving students' education level, to achieve the greatest possible results. Second, in order to achieve certain results, teachers and students spend the least necessary time. Third, in order to achieve certain results, teachers and students spend the least necessary energy. Fourth, in order to achieve certain results in a limited time, the expenditure is the least. Under the same time, the same conditions and the same effect, which scheme can save the teaching funds best is the best scheme in this case.
There are two criteria to measure whether the teaching process is optimized: first, the content, structure and activity logic of the teaching process can ensure the effective and high-quality completion of the tasks of educating, cultivating and developing students in general, so as to meet the requirements put forward by the national syllabus and make each student reach the level of maximum learning possibility; The second is to achieve the expected goal without exceeding the working time standards stipulated by the school and labor hygiene.
The basic method of optimization: the optimization of classroom teaching requires teachers to creatively choose the best scheme to teach new lessons based on teaching rules and principles when preparing lessons. The design of classroom teaching should not be formulaic, rigid and modular, and some working methods and forms should not be exaggerated or used equally, so the best combination should be made according to the specific situation. Choosing the best teaching plan means choosing the best teaching task, content, method, means, form and necessary speed to ensure good teaching conditions. So when we talk about optimization, we can't just talk about individual methods, but also talk about the realistic optimization method system. Only by combining a whole set of methods can we include all the characteristics of the teaching process. Optimizing square drawing system is a new concept in teaching theory. Teaching optimization requires the combination of teaching optimization (teacher activities) and learning optimization (student activities). Babanski expounded the optimization method from two aspects:
Teaching optimization methods: First, according to the characteristics of students, comprehensively formulate the tasks of parenting, education and student development, and make them concrete. The second is to optimize the content of classroom teaching and highlight the main substantive content. Third, consciously choose the best teaching methods, means and the most successful classroom teaching structure to complete certain teaching and educational tasks. The fourth is to teach students in accordance with their aptitude. The fifth is to create good conditions for teaching materials, school hygiene, mental and psychological conditions and aesthetic conditions. Sixth, take special measures to save time for teachers and students and choose the best teaching speed.
Optimize learning: First of all, under the influence of teachers, students should understand the full scope of the basic tasks they face and take the basic tasks as their own guiding principles; Second, always focus on the main problems of the subject and try to find the best and most reasonable scheme to complete the learning task; Third, through effective self-examination, strive to gradually adjust their activities; Fourth, give full play to the advantages of practical learning possibilities and overcome shortcomings; Fifth, control the time reasonably, and insist on improving your learning speed while ensuring the high quality of learning; Sixth, self-analyze your learning effect and time consumption. This self-organization of learning activities under the clever guidance of teachers is in line with the optimization standard, which ensures that students will not feel overburdened and achieve the best possible results.
10. Gardner:
Gardner is a professor of developmental psychology at Harvard University School of Education and a famous psychologist and educator in the field of international intermodal transport. The theory of "multiple intelligences" put forward by him in the book "The Structure of Mind" is called "Copernican Revolution" by the educational and psychological circles in various countries.
According to the theory of multiple intelligences, intelligence is the ability that individuals need to solve their own practical problems or create effective products under the value standards of a certain social or cultural environment. Specifically, it includes the following meanings:
First, each individual's intelligence has its own characteristics. According to Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, as individuals, each of us has eight kinds of relatively independent intelligences at the same time, but the eight kinds of relatively independent intelligences in each person are not absolutely isolated and irrelevant in real life, but organically combined in different ways and degrees. It is these eight kinds of intelligence that are combined in different ways and degrees in everyone, which makes everyone's intelligence have their own characteristics.
Second, the development direction and degree of individual intelligence are influenced and restricted by environment and education. According to the theory of multiple intelligences, the development of individual intelligence is greatly influenced and restricted by the environment, including social environment, natural environment and educational conditions, and its development direction and degree vary with different environmental and educational conditions. Although people have eight kinds of intelligence under various environmental and educational conditions, the direction and degree of intellectual development are obviously different under different environmental and educational conditions.
Thirdly, intelligence emphasizes the individual's ability to solve practical problems and to produce and create effective products needed by society. According to Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, intelligence should emphasize two abilities, one is the ability to solve practical problems, and the other is the ability to produce and create effective products needed by society. According to Gardner's analysis, the traditional intelligence theory originated from modern industrial society, and it attaches importance to verbal-linguistic intelligence and logical-mathematical intelligence. Intelligent interpretation is a comprehensive ability with language ability and mathematical logic ability as the core.
Fourthly, the theory of multiple intelligences attaches importance to the multi-dimensional view of intelligence. In Gardner's view, it should be the essence of the theory of multiple intelligences to admit that intelligence is composed of equally important multiple abilities rather than one or two core abilities, and that intelligence is multidimensional, relatively independent rather than comprehensive.
Theoretical structure of multiple intelligences: Gardner believes that the theory of multiple intelligences is supported by eight kinds of intelligences that exist relatively independently in individuals and are related to specific cognitive fields and knowledge fields: linguistic intelligence, rhythmic intelligence, mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, kinesthetic intelligence, introspection intelligence, communication intelligence and natural observation intelligence.
Speech-language intelligence refers to the ability of listening, speaking, reading and writing, which is manifested in the ability of individuals to describe events smoothly and efficiently, express their thoughts and communicate with cognition.
Music-rhythm intelligence: refers to the ability to feel, distinguish, remember, change and express music, which is manifested in personal sensitivity to music, including rhythm, tone, timbre and melody, and the ability to express music through composition, performance and singing.
Logic-mathematical intelligence: refers to the ability of operation and reasoning, which is characterized by sensitivity to analogy, contrast, causality, logic and other relationships between things, as well as the ability to think through mathematical operation and logical reasoning.
Vision-spatial intelligence: refers to the ability to feel, distinguish, remember and change the spatial relationship of objects to express thoughts and feelings, which is manifested in the sensitivity to lines, shapes, structures, colors and spatial relationships and the ability to express through plane graphics and three-dimensional modeling.
Body-kinesthetic intelligence: refers to the ability to use limbs and trunk, which is manifested as being able to better control one's body, make an appropriate physical response to events, and be good at expressing one's thoughts and feelings by using body language.
Self-knowledge-introspection intelligence: refers to the ability to know, see and reflect on oneself, which is manifested in the ability to correctly know and evaluate one's emotions, motives, desires, personality and will, and to form the ability of self-esteem, self-discipline and self-control on the basis of correct understanding and self-evaluation.
Communication-communication intelligence: refers to the ability to get along with and communicate with others, which is manifested in the ability to perceive and experience other people's emotions, emotions and intentions and make appropriate responses accordingly.
Natural observation intelligence: refers to the ability of individuals to identify the characteristics of the environment (not only the natural environment, but also the man-made environment) and classify and use it.