romanticism
One of the basic creative methods of literature and art, together with realism, is the two main ideological trends of literature and art. Romanticism, as a creative method, pays attention to the subjective inner world and expresses the enthusiastic pursuit of the ideal world while reflecting the objective reality, and often uses passionate language, magnificent imagination and exaggerated techniques to shape images. Romantic creative tendency has a long history. As early as the oral creation period of human literature and art, some works have romantic factors and characteristics to varying degrees. However, romanticism at this time did not form a trend of thought, nor was it a creative method that people consciously mastered. Romanticism, as a major literary trend of thought, prevailed in Europe from the second half of the18th century to the first half of the19th century, and was manifested in various departments of culture and art.
Romantic movement is the product of French Revolution, European Democratic Movement and National Liberation Movement. It reflects the demand of individual liberation in the rising period of the bourgeoisie, is a political resistance to the joint rule of feudal lords and Christian churches, and is also a literary resistance to French neoclassicism.
The Enlightenment made ideological preparations for the French Revolution politically, and also for the romantic movements in European countries in literature and art, but the bourgeois dictatorship and capitalist social order established after the victory of the French Revolution declared the disillusionment of the Enlightenment. "Compared with the gorgeous promises of enlightenment scholars, the social system and political system established by' rational victory' is actually an extremely disappointing cartoon." (Engels) The romantic movement that swept across Europe was a reflection of the general disappointment of all social classes at that time with the consequences of the French Revolution and the "kingdom of reason" proposed by the enlightenment thinkers.
Romanticism prevailed in France in the late18th century and the first half of19th century. It is an ideological and cultural movement in Europe with a wide range of contents, but it still lingers in the 20th century. French romanticism is mainly reflected in the fields of painting, sculpture, novels and drama; English romanticism is mainly embodied in the fields of poetry, historical painting and landscape painting; Romanticism in Germany is embodied in the fields of music, poetry and painting.
Spanish painter Francisco de Goya (1746 to 1828) is a dazzling star.
The purpose of romanticism is opposite to "rationality", and its main feature is to pay attention to the expression of personal feelings, with less restraint and freedom. Romanticism transcends reality in a fantasy or retro way. The word romance in French means rich feelings and sentimentality.
Romanticism, as a literary trend of thought in European literature, came into being in the era of bourgeois revolution and national liberation movement at the end of18th century19th century. Political opposition to feudal autocracy and artistic opposition to classicism belong to an ideology in the rising period of capitalism.
The word "romanticism" evolved from the adjective "romantic". The adjective "Romance" is transformed from the French word "Romance" (that is, "legend" or "novel"). Judging from the available data, the word "romance" was first used by British talents in 1654. It is legendary, absurd and untrue, and obviously contains negative connotations of derogatory meanings. In the18th century, the word gradually became a positive commendatory term, which was used to evaluate works and gained the additional meaning of "pleasant melancholy".
1At the end of the 8th century, with the rise of romanticism in the European literary world, the word romanticism became very popular. 1798, Fran' especially learned the names of other creative methods.
Romanticism in Europe was born under the historical conditions that people were disappointed in the "kingdom of reason" in the Enlightenment, disillusioned with the slogan of "freedom, equality and fraternity" in the bourgeois revolution and dissatisfied with the capitalist social order. The reality at that time, as Engels pointed out: "Compared with the gorgeous promises of enlightenment scholars, the social system and political system established by' rational victory' is actually an extremely disappointing cartoon." The writers at that time were dissatisfied with the reality and tried to find ways to solve social contradictions. However, due to the different class positions and political attitudes held by writers, romanticism is divided into two opposing schools, namely, positive romanticism and negative romanticism. The former is a progressive trend, which makes people look forward, while the latter is a reactionary countercurrent, which makes people look back. This difference is essentially two completely different reactions to the French Revolution and the Enlightenment.
Active romantic writers dare to face up to reality, criticize the darkness of society, aim at feudal aristocrats, oppose the remnants of feudal factors in capitalist society, and expose all kinds of evil phenomena caused by the bourgeoisie itself, so they are full of passion for resistance and struggle, hope for the future, yearn for a new and better life, and some are in favor of utopian socialism. Daimai writers include Byron and Shelley in Britain, Hugo and george sand in France, Heine in Germany, Higgins in Russia yesterday (early), Mizz Kevic in Poland, petofi in Hungary and so on. Their life practice and artistic practice were all related to the bourgeois democratic revolutionary thought at that time and the national liberation movements of various countries, and most writers were active participants in these national liberation movements.
Negative romantics are not. They can't face up to the sharp contradictions in social reality and adopt a passive evasive attitude. Their thoughts are related to the ideology of the overthrown feudal aristocracy. Starting from the movement against bourgeois single life, they opposed the status quo, nostalgic for the past, beautified the patriarchal clan system in the Middle Ages, and fantasized about seeking spiritual comfort and sustenance from the ancient feudal society. The emergence of negative romanticism is actually a literary reflection of the thoughts and emotions of declining feudal nobles. Representative writers are German brothers Rajgl, namely, Ashe Rajgl and Fausch Rajgl, French Novalis, chateaubriand, Lamartin and Winnie the Pooh, Russian zhukovsky, British Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey and so on.
The rise and fall of romanticism is determined by the characteristics of historical conditions in various countries. As a formed literary trend of thought, P first appeared in Germany. At that time, negative romanticism prevailed and positive romanticism developed slowly due to the rampant influence of German Yong Ke nobles and the weakness of the bourgeoisie. After Heine entered the literary world, positive romanticism rose in Germany.
The romantic trend of thought in France, like the waves of the sea, is magnificent, spectacular and violent. Its emergence and development can not be separated from the restoration of feudal nobles and the repeated struggles of the bourgeoisie. Romanticism first rushed out from the obstacles set by classicism, and won in one fell swoop after a close combat. Then, in the rambling inner corner, positive romantics organized a broad United front including critical realists and defeated negative romantics. 1Before the 1920s, negative romanticism was king. From the late 20s to the early 1930s, due to the political victory of the bourgeoisie, positive romanticism suddenly rose and gained a dominant position.
In Russia, romanticism developed relatively late. It was not until 19 century that it became a genre. Among them, positive romanticism is closely related to the Russian The Decemberists Movement, which played a significant progressive role in the aristocratic revolution. Representative writers are early Pushkin and Reiliyev.
The most complete, standardized and successful romantic trend of thought is Britain. Compared with other countries, the romantic movement in Britain has the following characteristics; First of all, English romanticism did not form a large-scale literary movement, but appeared in the form of the free activities of a few writers. Secondly, British romanticism has a long history, like a small river, which is as long as 150 years. As early as the end of18th century, there were signs of romanticism in the poems of william blake (1757- 1827) and robert burns, a peasant poet (1759- 1796), and in the19th century, Until the late19th century, when Queen Victoria (reigned 1837- 190 1) was in power, romantic feathers could still be seen in the poems of Tennyson, robert browning and his wife elizabeth barrett browning. Third, English romanticism is clearly divided into two opposing factions. Negative romanticism came onto the literary stage before positive romanticism. Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey are the main generations, while Byron, Shelley and Keats are the opposite.
romanticism
/kloc-at the beginning of the 0/9th century, an art school rose in the French painting circle during the bourgeois democratic revolution. This painting school got rid of the fetters of academic school and classicism at that time, and paid attention to the artist's own imagination and creativity. His creative themes are taken from real life, medieval legends and literary masterpieces (such as the works of Shakespeare, Dante, Goethe and Byron), which is progressive to some extent. Representative works include * Gillick's "Medusa's Raft" and * Delacroix's "People's Free Leadership". The color of the picture is warm, the brushwork is bold and unrestrained, and it is full of movement.
First, the origin of the concept of realism
Realism is one of the most common terms in literary criticism and literary research. This word generally has two meanings: one is realism in a broad sense, which generally refers to the loyalty of literature and art to nature. It originated from the oldest western literary theory, that is, the simple concept of "art is the direct reproduction or imitation of nature" of the ancient Greeks. The fidelity of the work or the similarity with the real thing becomes the standard to judge the success of the work. Vasala's "The Painter's Life" has described some anecdotes about art history: peacocks pecked at cherries painted too realistically by Benazzi Oni; Giotto's teacher used a brush to drive away the flies Giotto put on a portrait. This realistic concept has dominated the history of human art for nearly two thousand years and still exists in daily life. The other is realism in a narrow sense, which is a historical concept, especially the realism movement that took place in the19th century. Historically, realism originated from the debate with romanticism, and finally gradually lost its position as the mainstream discourse in the debate with modernism.
R. Wellek's "The Concept of Realism in Literary Studies" traces the history of realism terms in Europe and America: the specific application of this concept in the literary field is 1826. A French writer claims that the realistic creed of faithfully imitating the model provided by nature is increasing day by day, and it will be realistic literature in the19th century. The popularity of this term is related to the active use of painter Courbet and novelist Champfleury. Courbet labeled his rejected works as realism, which caused a controversy. Champfleury published an anthology called Realism in 1857, defending the creed of realism. At the same time, his friend Dulanty published the literary criticism magazine Realism. Although only six issues have been published in a flash in the pan, his writing style is controversial and has a wide influence. It was regarded as conservative realism by modernist avant-garde in the 20th century, and it also had avant-garde character of challenging literary conventions when19th century was born. Dulanty once made it clear: "This terrible term' realism' is the subversive of the school it represents. It is absurd to say' realism' school, because realism expresses a frank and perfect personality expression; Stereotype, imitation and any genre are exactly what it opposes "(1). To be precise, realism challenges the artistic tradition of romanticism. In the history of western literary criticism, Wilmsett and Brooks understood realism as a reverse movement against "unrealistic things" in the middle of 65,438+09 century. Dulanty and Fleuri inherited Planck's thought of resisting romanticism in 1930s, and sharply criticized Hugo, Miao Sai, Winnie the Pooh and other romantic writers, accusing them of "ignoring their own times". Realists reject the lies in this poem. (2) Therefore, realism appears as the opposite and rival of romanticism, which inherently contains the significance of opposing fantasy and pretence and advocating truth.
Second, the theoretical significance of realism
Realism reached its climax through the development of theorists such as Turner, Engles, belinsky and Luacs and the literary practice of great writers such as Balzac and Tolstoy in the 20th century. Realism theory is becoming more and more perfect, forming a complete set of discourse rules. It includes the following meanings:
First, the realistic and objective representation of social reality is the most fundamental meaning of realistic terms. Damian Grant explained the objectivity of realism with the theory of conformity, which he called serious literary psychology. "If literature ignores or belittles the external reality, and hope only draws nutrition from unrestrained imagination and exists only for imagination, this serious psychology will protest." (3) This emphasizes the loyalty and responsibility of literature to reality. R Wellek interprets this meaning from the historical background of realism against romanticism: "It excludes illusory fantasy, fairy tales, meanings and symbols, high stylization, and pure abstraction and sculpture, which means that we don't need fiction, fairy tales and dream worlds." (4) In this sense, we hope to truly present the real state of social existence. Realism theory, as an opponent of romanticism and a spokesman for the poor little people on the edge of society, emphasizes the ideology of exposing the truth and exposing the status quo. In other words, realism resists romanticism as a form of bourgeois intellectuals' discourse, and instead pursues objectivity and speaks for those disadvantaged groups or strata who are trapped in poverty and marginalized. Obviously, it has simple human feelings and humanitarian spirit.
The theoretical significance of realism "objectively reappearing the contemporary social reality" has been profoundly explained in Luacs's exposition. The most faithful believers and the last defenders of realism wrote a lot of works, summed up the artistic experience of realism and responded to the challenges that realism encountered in the 20th century: the history of realism (1939), Balzac, Stendhal and Zola (1945) and the great Russian realist (1939). First of all, he reinterpreted the meaning of realism objectivity from the perspective of epistemology: "The task of art is to faithfully and truly describe the whole reality." (5) Luacs put forward the realistic artistic requirement of describing the reality comprehensively. The so-called overall description is to reflect the totality of society and history, pursue the breadth of literary description, and grasp social life from all aspects of the whole; Explore the essential factors hidden behind the phenomenon and discover the internal overall relationship of things. Secondly, Luacs did not understand the objectivity of realism as pure objectivity excluding any subjective factors, nor did he regard literature reflecting social reality as a static mirror. Luacs affirmed the importance of subjective knowledge, emphasizing the unity of objectivity and subjectivity, and the unity of the external world and the inner world. Luacs fought on both sides, fighting against naturalism for the purity of realism, and excluded Flaubert and Zola's trivial and objective lack of integrity from the realistic camp; On the other hand, in response to the challenge of modernism, we criticize modernist writers such as Joyce and Prost, thinking that they have disintegrated all contents and forms. Therefore, modernism cannot truly reflect the reality as a whole.
Second, the well-known typical theory. Typical theory constitutes the core content of realistic theory. Generally speaking, the typical theory is to solve the relationship between the special and the general of literary figures. Hegel and Schelling laid an aesthetic foundation for the spread of typicalism. Hegel believes that personality is the real center of ideal artistic expression, and personality is interesting because of its integrity, and integrity "is because the universality of the power it represents is combined with the particularity of individual characters, and it becomes its own unified self in this unity." (6) According to the history of Wellek, the original user of typical terms is Schelling, which means a mythical figure with great universality. Romanticism first widely used this concept, and the typical concept changed from romanticism to realism, which was related to the transformation of Balzac and Turner. In the preface of Human Comedy, Balzac claimed to be a typical social researcher, while Turner frequently used this term to discuss the personality of social class figures, which gradually evolved into the most important theoretical concept of realism. Typicality is also a common tool used by belinsky when discussing Russian novels. He even thinks: "typicality is one of the basic laws of creation." Without it, there is no creation ... It is necessary to make a character a representative of a person in a special world and a complete and individual person. " (7) Major Kovalev written by Nikolai Nikolai Gogol is not Major Kovalev, but Major Kovalev. Even describing a water bearer is not just one person, but all water bearers. This is what belinsky called typical essence. After Lu Xun's The True Story of Ah Q was published, many people were uneasy and always thought it was about themselves. The unique Ah Q has a huge * * * personality and even becomes synonymous with national character. Realism calls this literary image with perfect combination of personality and sexiness a typical image.
Third, historical requirements. Wellek believes that historicity is a feasible standard in realistic theory. He quoted auerbach's comments on Red and Black to illustrate this point: "Hero is rooted in a universal political, social and economic reality, and it is concrete and constantly developing" (8). Wellek's point of view is right. Realism does have its historical dimension. Engels said in his letter to Ma Hakenas, "Realism is to reproduce the typical characters in the typical environment in addition to the truth of the details. "Only by putting the characters in a concrete overall reality of politics, society and economy can we reach the height of' complete realism'. Moreover, this concrete overall reality is constantly developing, just as Luacs's realism wants to shape those vivid dialectical processes. " In this process, the essence is transformed into a phenomenon, and it appears in the phenomenon; It also shapes the side of this process, that is, the phenomenon reveals its own essence when the process moves. On the other hand, these individual factors not only contain dialectical movement and mutual transformation, but also constantly influence each other; They are elements of an uninterrupted process. Therefore, real art always expresses the whole of human life by shaping the movement, development and expansion of these factors. "(9) Simply put, the historical dimension of realism requires a true portrayal of complex social relations and a reflection of the contradictory movement process of complex social relations. The historical requirement of realism is essentially based on social analysis, that is, describing people's social experience and the structure of society itself as artistic principles. Moreover, realism tries to reveal the dialectical relationship between man and society through the realistic contradiction of man. Realism proves that the more carefully we observe social reality, the deeper we study it, and the more thoroughly we understand the relationship between events and details and contradictory movements, the more we can gain real power.
As far as Western Europe is concerned, realism is a literary trend of thought and creative method formed in the specific historical period from the Renaissance to the19th century, and it is also a literary phenomenon when the bourgeoisie in Western Europe stepped onto the historical stage and established political rule.
Realism, as a special literary term, first appeared in the theoretical works of German playwright Schiller in18th century. As a literary trend of thought, literary mud and creative method, "realism" first appeared in the French literary world. The word "realism" in French comes from the Latin word "realism". The emergence of realistic names is completely different from the existence of this literary trend of thought. In France, realism began in the 1950s. At first, the French novelist Fran? ois Flory (1821-kloc-0/599) used realism as a term to express a new artistic style. In his article "Realism in Art" in 1850, he used this term for the first time as a sign of criticizing realistic literature and art. Later, the French painter Courbet (18 19- 1877) advocated realism in painting.
1855, an exhibition of paintings was held in Courbet, which caused a big debate, known as the "realistic debate" in the history of literature and art. In this war, Courbet founded a journal called Realism. 1857, Champolli, an enthusiastic supporter of Courbet, named his anthology "Realist". Since then, the flag of realism has been formally established in European literary circles, and this term has become popular in France. As we all know, Balzac (1799- 1850) is a writer in the deepest sense of realism, and his Human Comedy is a profound and standardized realistic literature. However, Balzac, like Stendhal, Dickens, Thackeray and Nikolai Nikolai Gogol, never used the term "realism" to express their new literary school. In Russia, Pisarev, a literary theorist, first used this term (see his Realist), but it was in the 1960s.
Generally speaking, anything that can fully express the typical characteristics of real life with images is called realistic works. Emile Faguet, a French literary historian, explained: "Realism is an artistic proposition that clearly and calmly observes human events and then describes them clearly and calmly. ..... We should select the most meaningful rhyming events from thousands of real events, and then sort out these events to make them have a strong impression. " This is basically consistent with Engels' definition that "realism requires the true representation of typical characters in typical environments in addition to the truth in details". If realism is not simply understood as the inner truth of various realistic arts, but only as a set of principles and artistic methods of character description, then in western Europe, it is generally believed that realism was formed during the Renaissance. From Renaissance realism to1critical realism in the 1920s, and1enlightenment realism in the 8th century. Renaissance realism is famous for describing the vivid and rich feelings, desires and feelings of characters. It shows the sublimity of people, the integrity, purity and poetry of characters. But in analyzing social relations, it is not as good as realism in the Enlightenment. The latter is more social and analytical, emphasizing that creation should have a clear social purpose and ideological education.
/kloc-the trend of critical realism in the 0/9th century is both a historical inheritance and a realistic innovation. It summed up the literary experience before18th century, supplemented the historical concreteness of realism in the Renaissance, got rid of the rational principle of classicism, and overcame the didactic elements of realism and the subjectivity of romanticism in the Enlightenment. It also accepted the concreteness of character description from Renaissance literature, social analysis factors from classicism and enlightenment literature, and some passion from romanticism, but it gradually lost its unique optimism in the previous generation literature, but it was stained with pessimism that it could not get rid of. /kloc-the critical realism in the 0/9th century seems to be an organic combination of the realistic characteristics of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. It is also developed under the new historical conditions. It can describe people from the movement and development of things, from the various relationships between people and the environment, especially its representation of typical characters in typical environments, direct analysis of social life reality, and sharp exposure and criticism of reality, reaching an unprecedented level. In the history of world literature, the critical realism literature in the19th century became the peak of European bourgeois literature and art development. ..
Another explanation:
Literary thoughts first appeared in France, Britain and other places in11930s, and later spread to Russia, northern Europe and the United States, becoming the mainstream of European and American literature in19th century, and also creating the peak of modern European and American literature. Because of the strong social criticism of realistic literature, Gorky called it "critical realism".
Realism is the mainstream theory in international relations, and it is also a polysemous and controversial concept. Although critics and supporters of realism often regard it as a unified ideological whole, in fact, realism is not a single or unified theory. (1) As Jack Donnelly pointed out, realism not only can't provide a universal theory, but it is basically inconsistent, and the realists' explanations of the same event are often inconsistent. "Realism has become an inconsistent theoretical model based on * * * and preset theoretical assumptions, with some loose connections." Therefore, in order to understand realism, it is very important to understand the differences between realists in addition to the similarities between realistic world outlook and basic assumptions. Taking classical realism and neo-realism as examples, this paper discusses the diversity of realism theories, and then reveals the similarities and differences of realism in the international order model.
First, what is realism?
Realism is not only a world view, but also a set of hypothetical research paradigms containing various realistic theories and viewpoints. Realism is first of all a long-standing philosophical tradition and world outlook. As a world outlook, realism is based on a pessimistic understanding of moral progress and human ability. Realists regard history as a cycle rather than progress, and they deeply doubt whether human beings have the ability to overcome recurring conflicts and establish lasting cooperation and peace. The realistic world outlook pays more attention to the evil in human nature and the recurring tragedies in human experience. These realistic philosophical views have been strongly reflected in the works of Thucydides, Hobbes and Machiavelli. In the 20th century, ReinholdNiebuhr was a typical representative of this realism, although the philosophical basis of realism was clearly demonstrated in the works of HerbertButterfield, MartinWight and Hans Morgenthau. ⑤
Although realists are pessimistic about moral progress and human ability, their understanding of the root of realistic pessimism is different. The pessimism of classical realism is rooted in human nature. It holds that human nature is evil, and the opposition and conflict of interests in the international political field are inevitably dominated by the deep-rooted objective laws of human nature. Different from classical realism, the pessimism of new realism is more rooted in the essence of the international system. Kenneth Waltz, the main representative of neo-realism, believes that the international system is different from the domestic system. "The components of the domestic political system are subordinate to each other, some have the right to command, and some have to obey. The domestic system is centralized and hierarchical. The components of the international system are equally relevant. " "The basic structural feature of the international system is anarchy, that is, there is no legal centralized control force." 6. The lack of authority above the state in the international system leads to mutual insecurity, conflict and dependence on organized violence. The nature of the international system leads to constant competition and conflicts between countries. Countries can alleviate the influence of anarchy in the international system through diplomacy and power balance, but they cannot fundamentally eliminate its influence.
Secondly, realism can also be regarded as a research method to understand international politics. Scholars who consider themselves realism may hold the above-mentioned philosophical pessimism of realism, but when they try to explain the theoretical concept of how sovereign States interact, they often go beyond this pessimism. Most realists try to establish social science theories that can be used to explain and predict international behavior. However, the boundary between these two types of realist scholars is not always clear. The basic philosophy of realists is that international politics has always been and will always be marked by the use of power, military power and realistic politics, and they are skeptical about the value of international law, morality and the United Nations. It can be seen that realism is a general research method to understand international politics, not a single unified theory. Many critics and supporters of realism often fail to realize that realism is also a research method to understand international politics and a collection of many related theories. However, the view that realism is regarded as a single unified theory actually ignores the diversity of realism, which makes their understanding of realism too simplistic. Although the views in security research are often influenced by philosophical realism, many debates in contemporary international political theory and practice revolve around the theoretical issues of realism as a research method.
It must be pointed out that although most realists' realistic theories about international politics are often inconsistent, their core ideas are the same on the following essential issues about international politics. First of all, they believe that the state is the most important and important actor in international politics and the basic unit that constitutes the current international system. Therefore, the study of international politics will focus on the relationship between countries and pay less attention to the role of non-state actors such as international organizations and transnational corporations in international politics. They believe that non-state actors such as international organizations and transnational corporations can't actually realize the important position of the country. Secondly, realists regard anarchy, that is, there is no supreme authority with the same meaning, as the most prominent feature in international politics. In anarchy, "self-help must be the criterion of action", and the state must use all means of self-help including force to protect its own interests. Competition is the inevitable result of this anarchic system. The competition between countries is mainly concentrated in the field of military security, but it also includes economic and other fields. The competition between countries makes countries pay close attention to their power position in the international system and their relative advantages compared with other countries. This kind of worry guides the behavior of countries and makes it difficult to achieve cooperation between countries. Third, realists believe that the state will seek the maximization of power or security. Some realists pay attention to power and think that power is an end in itself. Morgenthau is an outstanding representative of this realism. Other realists believe that power is a means of security. For example, volz emphasized that power is only a means to achieve security goals. Fourthly, the realists assume that the country is a unified and rational actor in international affairs, which can reasonably determine its foreign policy objectives, consider the feasibility and possible results of various policy options, and then choose the policy option that can achieve the national objectives to the maximum extent. As Robert Keohan pointed out, right?