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Responsibility (responsibility), social role and responsibility (obligation), responsibility (obligation) and social responsibility (debt) are slightly different in meaning. . Moral responsibility is a relatively new term, and its root is the Latin responsibility of "promising one thing, another thing" or "answering". This is the western traditional religious ethics accepting or rejecting the call of God. It means "who is responsible for praying to God and answering our actions in our revelation ... well, it is always God." The earliest (1776) ruler's self-correction "public responsibility" is his famous "responsibility" when he exercises power in every action. In France, Spain, Germany and China, this most popular term is used to describe the social roles and responsibilities of a specific job or institution. In this sense, it should or should not be a good start. BR/>； Responsibility is the most commonly used term. People's ethical and legal treatment of their own behavior can explain this behavior. If the law often discusses future behavior, it is a positive and forward-looking legal system of moral responsibility, obligation and responsibility. The ability and function of the traditional moral system are established rules, but the requirement for citizens is only to do a good job in their social status. The concept of responsibility has no significant effect. There are still many encyclopedias in China, including the translation of philosophy in Encyclopedia of Responsibility.
In modern society, which emphasizes utility, individuality and democracy, people not only play an important role in society, but also find that freedom is the responsibility of freemen, justice and social order, because the original caste system is washed away, and the pursuit of self-interest and personal struggle will lead to social chaos, so people must learn to consider the equal status and responsibility of others. Therefore, more and more modern thoughts are "responsibility". German scholar Max Weber distinguished "responsibility ethics and moral belief". "Moral believers only need to believe in the fire in their hearts and don't let it go out. The consequences of his actions may be meaningless words. To be responsible for moral behavior, you must consider the possible consequences of your actions. He emphasized the priority action areas of moral responsibility.
The moral theory of responsibility emphasizes the actor, which lays the foundation for the action of responsibility (such as Kant's autonomy-self-responsibility-based on his social role and his moral philosophy). It is an activity in the world to emphasize the relationship between self and others, self-existence and others. In short, the relationship between the actor and the consequences of his actions is the core responsibility.
From a philosophical point of view, responsibility and causality in a certain sense. The most common responsibility, the first condition is the power of cause and effect, our actions will affect the world; Secondly, these behaviors are controlled actors; Third, to a certain extent, he can foresee the consequences. "However, one-way linear causality is usually the corresponding relationship between things, but the complexity of direct and indirect causes may produce different results. As a result, there are many possible reasons. Some of them understand, but some don't. Therefore, the discussion of responsibility is not a simple matter.
Responsibility is a function of knowledge and power. In any society, there are always some people, such as doctors, lawyers, scientists, engineers, or rulers. Because they have knowledge or special power, their actions may cause others and have a great impact on society and nature. Therefore, they should bear more moral responsibilities than others and need a special code (such as Hippocratic oath) br/. People use it to restrain their behavior. Knowledge and power are still quite limited, so many consequences often press the eternal laws of nature, and do good deeds and accumulate virtue. With the development of the times, all attention is focused on increasing scientific and technological knowledge, improving ability and changing the nature of human behavior. The consequences of personal behavior are more complicated, more serious, more lasting and unpredictable. Therefore, this kind of large-scale action and responsibility has become a new moral principle that must be adhered to, especially the future obligation. The philosopher Jonas's "command responsibility" and "command the use of things that conform to others in a way that does not destroy nature"
It is said that for a long time, western citizenship theory has emphasized more, and in recent decades, it has increasingly emphasized "the rights and interests of responsible citizens." The responsibility of professional ethics plays a greater role than ever in western art, politics and economy. It has become the dominant concept of social norms and the most common concept of norms in contemporary society? Live broadcast? In words? Where do you live? Business, religion, ethics and science and technology have all become touchstones of discussion. Penetrating into all fields of society, scientists and engineers, in today's era, science and technology are not only the social and moral responsibilities of a large number of scientists and engineers to participate in major decision-making and management, which has become a theme that cannot be ignored.
Is science value-neutral?
Responsibility is a modern topic, but it seems that the responsibility of scientists should be regarded as an exception. In the past 300 years, many people think that science is value-neutral scientific knowledge (pure science) and does not reflect its value? The value of personal motivation or scientific activities, especially for scientific purposes, does not directly affect the social consequences of scientists' theoretical achievements in the social sciences.
"Neutralism" logical positivism is the most representative and influential in China's scientific community. According to this view, only those declared experiences, through mathematical formulas and strict logical reasoning, are the accuracy of useful knowledge, Scientific Outlook on Development's development and system stability excluding subjective and value factors. Therefore, scientific, social, historical, cultural and psychological factors are excluded, and objective understanding is based on facts and logic, and the influence of social values is good or bad.
Others believe that not only the motivation of scientific knowledge is value-neutral scientific activities, but also the sole purpose of science, and it does not participate in personal values. For example, Max Weber, as a scientific tool, is a rational and scientific purpose, and guides the tools that need bureaucratic rational action (bureaucracy, an effective and reasonable organizational form). Choose effective means to achieve your goals, calculate rationally, and obey the reasonable control of the outside world in your career. The attitude of scientists he advocated should be "science and science, they can only do honest knowledge, based on the relationship between facts, logic and mathematics." He even asserted: "a scientist, he proved his value judgment, in fact, when it was over."
"Neutralism" has different forms and purposes in different periods, including comprehensive understanding, social, political, economic and cultural reasons. It reflects the development of science to a certain stage, the division of labor is too fine, the specialization is strong, the local is emphasized, and the overall restrictions (independent scientific activities, social consequences of science) are ignored, which reflects that science is a rational person. Other activities also reflect the differences in nature (for example, art does have its objective experience facts, religion, etc.). ) (science is based on empirical facts and logic permeates horizontal value), understanding the basic picture (modern mechanical world outlook is completely divorced from the spirit of the world in the material world, and the second natural connection is not the root cause of God or natural value, but the essence of industrial and utilitarian value as the object of a science itself) embodies the requirements (ensuring science). Because of this, the so-called "neutrality" is a mask, a shield and a sword. For example, in the17th century, the fledgling scientists of the Royal Society ensured that the royalists were value-neutral and did not interfere in theology, metaphysics, politics and morality? Really? That's it? Please don't accept the right of censorship. Freedom of speech and communication science have become increasingly powerful in the 20th century, and even become the main theme of the times. The "neutral theory" has replaced "political science" and "scientific ethics" (lysenko's "Destroying Weapons", Nazi Jewish scientist).
"Neutral scientific value, in a sense, seems to be that the academic influence established in a specific range is still useful, and it is often used as a shield to refuse to consider the moral responsibility of scientists. From the understanding of social development in the whole social science, especially in the scientific background of modern society, then we can only be a myth or an ideal neutral theory. The criticism of "value-neutral" logical positivism, historical Marxism, scientific Marxism and philosophy, and Weber's unconscious instrumental rationality and the limitations of personal knowledge and gear bureaucracy are all problems that need attention.
In the era of science and technology integration and "science and technology-economic and social integration", all countries have played an irreplaceable role in the development of big science, big science, big industry, big military and big science and technology, and the ideal of value neutrality and pure scientific foundation no longer exists. The concept of "pure science" has been applied to science instead of replacing the scientific concept of pure science, including basic research, applied research and development, including R&D as a whole for a long time, and there are not enough scientific representatives. The "basic science" of rejuvenating the country through science and education. "The slogan of' national interests' in science and technology is clear. It is predicted that the social goal of national investment in science and technology will not proceed from a scientific point of view. Modern science has become a social reason. Scientists generally belong to an organization or group (members or employees, because scientific research has become a livelihood). The return of scientific development, although not necessarily short-term or direct support, is community (capital and social resources). " The separation of noble science and science does not meet the requirements of the times. Skilled workers must consider the social consequences of scientific and social responsibilities and moral responsibilities. The science that pays attention to social consequences is concerned with the universality (universality), * * * productism (communitarianism) and interests (selflessness) of scientists.
/& gt； Merton, an American scientific sociologist, has the same national spirit and morality, and doubts the moral responsibility (doubt) and originality (originality) of the organizational structure. Many disputes leave the open discussion of these norms, followed by moderate rational spirit, neutral feelings, respect for other people's intellectual property rights, respect for facts, no fraud, and so on. Research scientists (experiments) should conform to humanitarian principles (? ? Such as the Nuremberg Code, and the principles of animal protection and ecological protection (such as the United Nations Declaration on the Protection of Animal Rights in the animal kingdom, 1978, all animals are born free and live freely, and every animal is respected.
In order to ensure the normal operation of science and scientific knowledge production, scientific social environment and self-development, scientists should consider multiple social identities, and the code of moral scientists should be added: accountability, and scientific knowledge has the responsibility of thinking, predicting and evaluating possible social consequences. For example, the production of TV programs in American universities is under the responsibility of the Schweber Committee of physical scientists. "New scientific enterprise creation-the conceptual framework of creating design objects that never existed before. Based on the transparency of the known understanding of emerging complexity and novelty, we must bear moral responsibility because we created these objects and statements."
Science (whether it is a direct scientist) should be responsible for scientists, scientists and other adverse consequences caused by science to human well-being? The application prospect is unknown and difficult to find. Scientists have found that the basic principles of applications are very unpredictable consequences. Scientists who try to apply scientific theory to practice (this is the most modern scientist) should carefully consider the consequences of scientific activities, regardless of their subjective motives. "His design is nothing more than the design of experiments, but lays the foundation for the side effects of the design concept of artificially provided products or technical solutions. You can try to do bad things or harm." As long as their behavior is free, the application of science is part of the causal chain, and they bear the moral consequences of the application of science, of course, not all direct actions "Weber's responsibility" in the moral field is a belief that takes precedence over "Tao Te Ching". It must take into account the possible consequences of the unity of motivation and effect, and it is inseparable and necessary from their own behavioral motives and dialectical materialism, and the public and popular practices.
In the 20th century, science was applied to military and industrial fields, and the negative impact of science and technology on society increased significantly. With the development of genetic engineering technology, scientists have changed from an atomic scientist who is no longer indifferent to the ecological crisis of human survival to a scientific thinking that reflects social consequences 1945. Report of the Scientists' War Committee: "In the past, how did people use their selfless discoveries? They may be wrong, but scientists who are directly responsible now feel it necessary to take more active measures to achieve greater success in developing nuclear energy research, which is more dangerous than previous inventions. " They feel obligated to publish "Scientific Education, Technology and Social Issues for the Public of Atomic Energy Science". I believe they are committed to public education, and they know the responsibility of all scientists for the unprecedented potential risks of scientific development. "
Scientists all over the world, the responsibility of scientists, have been widely discussed since 1957, including the famous Pugwash conference and the Masloma conference in Asilo 1975. In the early 1970s, scientists discussed the potential dangers of recombinant DNA research, the new scope of responsibility and their own way of thinking. However, in recent years, scientists, researchers and those who have unlimited power, responsibility and pursuit of truth have criticized and doubted the ethical issues of cloning technology. In this way, scientific research, especially those that may be potentially dangerous, should be restricted, which is still controversial. Scientists refuse to be called very worried, emphasizing scientists' responsibilities and unnecessary restrictions. However, scientists believe that projects that may endanger utopia can predict the application prospect of possible scientific knowledge more accurately than the scientific knowledge that others have already mastered. They have the responsibility to predict the negative impact of science and public science education, because modern scientists have a positive evaluation of their professional work. As the elite of the society, they often participate in the major decisions of the government and industry and enjoy a special reputation. Their opinions will be more trustworthy, so non-professional knowledge should be modest and cautious. They have the responsibility to publicly express their views, conflicts of interest in all aspects, and even withdraw from certain projects when their conscience decides.
What is an engineer and who is in charge?
What is the responsibility of scientists? The production of scientific knowledge (indirect social consequences) is a significant difference. The responsibility of an engineer is the opinion of a theoretical scientist. There seems to be a little difference. Engineers explore the application of knowledge and put it into practice. The consequences of projects that affect your work and theoretical research, especially basic theoretical research, are very clear. Engineers should be responsible for the consequences of the project?
Engineering philosopher Samuel froman, the basic responsibility of the project? The idea that teachers are engineers who do well in engineering, Stephen Safety Grid (Stephen unger)? Public welfare engineers, engineers continue to even refuse to bear whether he is conducive to freedom. "In the past, mainly related? Think about whether you have done it well.
Engineer's responsibility, "What is your essence? Have you encountered some engineering ethics disputes, such as doctors and lawyers? In fact, the project itself has no clear internal and independent ideal, except that medical and health services have different fair goals of legal efficiency. Early engineers built and used "war machines" until the end of18th century. Engineering, military engineering and civil engineering follow the guidance of the state in peacetime. Anyway, to a considerable extent, an engineer with strong technical strength must obey and obey orders. His main duties, even in mechanical, chemical and electrical engineering, continued to develop without changing his works.
More and more powerful engineers and technicians need an independent and different engineer. /kloc-the number of engineers in the hands of some industrial countries increased in the 0 th and 9 th centuries. They believe that engineers are the main promoters of technological reform and the main force of human progress, and their prejudice is not influenced by a particular interest group. Psychological logic also has a wide range of responsibilities to ensure technological reform and ultimately benefit mankind. What they should abide by before you can be called "orders": "You should only design or assist in the completion of projects that do not pose a threat, and you should remind the public that it is not qualified in any project." For example, an American engineer, Morrison's pride (Minister George Trumpet), confidently declared, "We have mastered the remarkable progress of the pastor, so that others can also enjoy the fruits of development, the source of natural forces, and the power of our mind to control matter. Pastor's new era, but never superstitious, another engineer said: "It is engineers, not others, who will lead the progress of mankind, and will never put the responsibility faced by mankind on the shoulders of engineers in the early19th century and 1930s, and put the technocratic movement in western countries under the background of technocratic movement. This ideological movement has not been successful, but it will have a long-term and far-reaching impact on world politics.
What we are discussing here is that they should undertake all the engineering and scientific and technological achievements that engineers need and accept all the glorious failures. Very limited, because the work of all engineering and technical experts largely controls the operators or political families, their courses, not by engineers. What are the consequences of engineers' dereliction of duty? Responsibility, or deliberately destroying your own work, but unintentionally neglecting (such as product defects), or unclear responsibility (such as earthquake prediction errors)? Importantly, in the former case, the project controls the number of operators or politicians. If the project itself, public engineers have the responsibility to deal with who is responsible? Engineering (bridges, houses, cars, etc.). ), the conflict between the interests of employers or the whole social status, the interests of employers, and the long-term interests of society and mankind, did engineers protect their interests in the first place? The ideal unity is the responsibility of the staff of scientific circles, civil society and research institutions, but in fact, they often have various conflicts.
A controversial issue, engineers, should be natural "informers" (informers), the work of scientists and engineers, so they often directly realize that some companies or other institutions, such as product quality, performance, public safety and health or environmental defects, have no right to disclose whether it is true or not in real life. These informers are often dismissed or transferred and regarded as "troublemakers". Ibsen's "enemy" vividly describes this phenomenon, and many scientific, professional and technical associations support informers, such as engineers and the ethics of public tasks that require engineers to have occupational safety, health and well-being.
However, this requirement obviously deviates from Merton's autonomy to ensure the "selflessness" of scientific activities. On the other hand, the judgment of reporting a case is based on the fact that if you are not recognized, peer review or even opposed to his practice is scientific and standardized, whether they are in charge of professional work or not, you need to analyze specific problems. Of course, your own understanding will fundamentally solve the government. The conflict of interests between enterprises and the public needs a holistic concept. Large-scale technology planning, public participation in democratic management, strive for even so, engineers and scientists can predict and evaluate applied science education and public liability insurance for science and technology, because without turning on the computer, democratic decision-making, democratic management, science and technology and sound quality will be useless.
With the new development of modern scientific and technological revolution, scientists and technicians have provided unprecedented impetus. The consequences of their actions are often unpredictable IT, Internet, genetic engineering, nuclear energy and new material technology, but they also bring benefits to mankind. Moreover, in the foreseeable and unpredictable losses, even disasters, or injuries to others, the interests of scientific and technological workers need urgent attention in a short time, far exceeding the greatness of the highly developed era of science and technology.