Strategy and grand strategy
Less than a century ago, JCF· Fuller clearly distinguished between "strategy" and what he called "grand strategy". The former "pays more attention to the movements of the armed masses", and he wrote, "including these movements and the driving forces behind them", whether it is "material" or "psychological". As he said,
The first duty of a great strategist is. .. understand the business and financial situation of the country; Find out what its resources and liabilities are. Secondly, he must understand the moral characteristics of his compatriots, their history, characteristics, social customs and * * * system, because all these quantities and qualities constitute the pillars of the military arch that he has the responsibility to build. (2 1 1-28)
To this end, he added, a great strategist must be "a student who studies the permanent characteristics and slowly changing system of his country, and he is required to protect this country from war and failure." In fact, he must be a knowledgeable historian and a visionary philosopher, as well as a competent strategist and tactician. He also hinted that the great strategist needed a similar understanding of the resources, debts, history, regime and lifestyle of his country's allies and opponents. Therefore, Fuller insists that "great strategists" cannot limit their authority to the military. Unless he is a "politician and diplomat" at the same time (ditto), he can't succeed.
Although there may be few great strategists with all the necessary knowledge and qualities, and they are far away from each other, it can be said that almost every lasting political group can manage it over time, usually through trial and error, not only to clarify the grand strategy suitable for defending the regime under its rule and the lifestyle it produces, but also to develop a strategic culture and operating code suitable for this strategy. The classic Lacedaemon is a good example.
Ancient Sparta
The origin of the Spartan regime and the lifestyle that followed it are shrouded in legends-scholars interested in this subject have to rely heavily on well-founded speculation. Nevertheless, many things are certain-or almost certain.
The grand strategy of defending one's way of life gradually expounded by Lachise Dreamers is comprehensive.
Early ancient Sparta was a conquered community, relying on the labor of the slave class called slaves. They belong to the city, tied to the land and play the role of tenant farmers. It seems that Spartans first settled in the Europa Valley in the southeast of the Peloponnesus in the 9th century BC. In the next few decades, their control extended to the whole area. By the end of the 7th century BC, they conquered, reconquered and exploited the heroes living in Pamsos Valley in the southwest of Peloponnesus. A mountain named Tagetes separates the two valleys. The Mycenae living in Pamirs considered themselves a enslaved people. Moreover, they are more resentful and prone to rebellion than the "old Silos" along the coast of Yurotas. During the Persian War in the 5th century BC, the population of these two stubborn slaves surpassed the citizens of Sparta by four to five or even seven to one.
Although maintaining the law and order of slaves is a considerable burden, their obedience is also a great boon to Spartans. As the ruling order, this group constitutes the aristocratic class, enjoying their leisure time and devoting themselves to a * * * lifestyle centered on cultivating some masculinity virtues. They seldom act alone. They compose music, sing and dance together. They exercise together, take part in sports competitions, boxing and wrestling. They hunt, eat, joke and rest together. Their world is a chaotic world, but it is not without elegance, nor is it characterized by a bad atmosphere as some people imagine. In fact, their life is full of privilege and happiness, and full of friendly and fierce competition spirit.
They combined music with gymnastics, friendship and competition, and won the European Gymnastics Federation Award for them? Moní a-the happiness and success that everyone yearns for-makes them the envy of the Greeks. Of course, this gentleman's expedient measure has a premise-Ladaiqimeng continued to rule the two river basins in the southern Peloponnesus and brutally suppressed the slaves on both sides of the Tahoe River-if a grand strategy was not formulated, the Spartans could not achieve this, nor could they develop a strategic culture and a compatible operational code.
Spartan grand strategy
In ancient times, the Grand Strategy (about 800-479 BC), people in Dai Meng, Laqi, gradually worked out comprehensive defensive measures, just like a successful Grand Strategy. It will inevitably have a considerable impact in China. Its rules and regulations largely explained the Spartans' aversion to business. Their practice of infanticide; They provide every citizen with equal distribution of land and servants for farming; The luxury law of the city; They shared slaves, horses and hounds; Their strong piety; Put their male offspring under a well-designed education and enlightenment system; They instill civic spirit with music and poetry; Their * * * behavior; They used to be strict with themselves and discipline; Of course, they are also constantly preparing for the war.
This grand strategy also explains the clarity of the ancient daemon process and a well-designed mixed system of balance and inspection as time goes by. In order to maintain their dominance in the two valleys and enslave the Luo people in Riccardo Chailly, the Spartans had to avoid factions. Cultivate the same views, passions and interests among them; The most important thing is to adopt procedures that are considered fair and just when the situation is tense, so as to reach a stable political understanding that meets the requirements of prudence. If ancient Sparta was famous for eunomía or "good order and legitimacy", it was largely the result of their response to the challenges faced by the community.
The type of fighting trained by Spartans is also very important-because the Greek way of fighting is unique, which rewards endurance, close cooperation, civic unity and numerical superiority. The military revolution in the late 8th century BC and the 7th century established the primacy of heavy infantry. The key to this is the introduction of aspís, a concave shield, which not only has a bronze armband in the center, called pórpax, through which the soldier's left arm passes, but also has a leather rope or the right edge of the handle shield on or near the shield, called ant? The lab? Let him catch it with his left hand. This shield leaves the holder's right side unprotected and extends to his left side in a way that is useless to him as a soloist.
When the infantry with this equipment acts alone-cavalry, light troops and enemy heavy infantry formations can easily crush it into paste; This is also easy to happen when agile and light troops equipped with javelin catch such soldiers on terrain that is not suitable for seeking decisions through dense formation. However, when people equipped with Aspis are deployed on a relatively flat ground, just like the heavy infantry in the phalanx-closely and orderly arranged-this special shield makes each heavy infantry become the protector of his left companion: because, as Thucydides (460/455-399/398 BC) observed (5), it is this fact that explains the support for King Demaratu of Sparta.
Enemies and allies
Not surprisingly, the grand strategy adopted by Spartans also had a serious impact on the status of ancient Sparta. Considering the challenges they faced, there were never enough Spartans. Moreover, even in the best case, their habitats are unstable-because they not only have to compete with Luo people in Riccardo Chailly. In the northeast, they met powerful enemies in the densely populated city of Argos long ago.
In order to cope with the dangers that accompanied their situation, Spartans could seek protection? ko？ Dependent free population living in villages outside the valleys of Eurotas and Pamisos. At first, Spartans surpassed the latter in number, and whether they were reliable was never entirely certain. They must also be intimidated. In the long run, if Spartans can't recruit allies outside their strongholds in the southern Peloponnesus, their way of life will be unsustainable. In the 390s BC, when the number of Spartans decreased, the comparison made by Corinthian leaders was appropriate even in the 6th century BC, when their number reached 8000- 10000. When other streams flow into the river, the strength of the river does increase. Laqi's generation of dreamers can say: "There, where they appear, they are lonely;" But when they continue to flow and gather in the city, under their control, it becomes more and more difficult to fight "(xen.hell.4.2.11-kloc-0/2).
It took the Spartans decades to fully understand the significance of their position. At least in the early days, they tried all kinds of expedient measures, but none of them worked. However, by the middle of the 6th century BC, Governor Chilon and others began to realize that if their compatriots didn't find some way to use the manpower of neighboring countries, they themselves would become harvesters one day. Therefore, the Spartans reluctantly gave up their dream of further expansion and adopted Chilon's suggestion. They regard moderate virtue as a necessary command and take his slogan "not too much" as their slogan.
First, they redefined themselves as defenders of Acadian autonomy. Then, as the scourge of tyranny, the defenders of freedom, the friends of oligarchs, and the legal heirs of Agamemnon in Homer's works, they appeared in front of the larger Greek world. It was under this banner that they rearranged the affairs of Peloponnesian compatriots according to their own preferences, established a road system connecting the peninsula, and established a grand alliance to stop Argos, slaves and Acadians. Most importantly, in.
conclusion
Generally speaking, the grand strategies carefully formulated by the ancient Spartans in ancient times were carefully designed to achieve their expected service purposes. However, it has a potential defect. It requires Spartans to adopt an isolationist policy, assuming that for all practical purposes, the Peloponnesus itself is a world under the hegemony of Radhika's dream-in all fairness, this strategy was first formulated. However, if one day a force equal to or greater than ancient Sparta appeared at or near the entrance of the peninsula, or even threatened to appear, Spartans would have to reconsider this strategy and reformulate it to meet unexpected challenges.
This was the brilliant achievement of Raj dreamers in 480 and 479, when the Achaemenid Empire, which was stronger than any other empire in human history, appeared at their doorstep. During the Peloponnesian War from 465 BC to 404 BC, when the maritime hegemony of Athens threatened their control of the Peloponnesian Peninsula, this was the goal they bravely tried to achieve again and again.
The Spartans' experience in dealing with these external threats finally persuaded them to give up the grand strategy formulated under the guidance of Kay Long Xing in the middle of the 6th century BC and start an imperial adventure. However, despite their shortcomings, their initial grand strategy is more in line with their long-term interests and deepest wishes than building an empire. Because, as Kay Long Xing and his followers realized, their compatriots lack the manpower needed to make these efforts. They are not suitable for people who are temperamentally free. They give up temperance and Peloponnesian isolationism, which is bound to subvert their way of life and the amazing discipline instilled in them by the system of maintaining their lives through mutual supervision. Therefore,
refer to
Fuller, JCF war reform. London: Haakinson, 1923
Hutchinson, G. Sparta: Not suitable for empire. Frontline books, 20 15.
Sparta's First Attica War: Grand Strategy of Classical Sparta, 478-446 BC. Yale university press, 20 19.
Grand Strategy of Classical Sparta: Persian Challenge. Yale University Press, 20 15.
Characteristics, origin and grand strategy of spartan regime. Yale university press, 20 16.