After the Opium War, in the process of China's feudal economic decomposition and the development of commodity economy, under the stimulation and demonstration of foreign enterprises and the induction of Westernization military industry, especially civilian industry, China's capitalist industry began to rise in the 1960s and 1970s. There are two ways to produce national industries: (1) Handicraft workshops introduce machines and transform them into modern industrial enterprises; (2) Small and medium-sized landlords, bureaucrats, businessmen, comprador, overseas Chinese, etc.
(1) Early famous enterprises mainly included "three factories and one workshop". Before the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, there were 260 modern commercial enterprises, most of which were light industries, mainly distributed in coastal areas such as Shanghai, Guangdong and Tianjin.
(2) The investors of modern commercial enterprises are mainly bureaucrats, landlords and businessmen (including comprador manual owners), who have been transformed into the national bourgeoisie.
(3) Although the national capitalist industry is an advanced mode of production, it emerged and developed in the process of semi-colonization of China society, and its strength is weak. It is oppressed and bound by foreign capitalism and feudalism in China, and at the same time depends on them. This makes the national bourgeoisie inevitably have duality in politics. (End of 19)
After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, imperialism exported capital to China, which further destroyed the natural economy of China society and provided objective conditions for the initial development of national capitalism. In order to expand the tax source and solve the financial crisis, the Qing government relaxed the restrictions on private factories. At the end of 19, China's national industry had a preliminary development. As a new independent political force, the national bourgeoisie has stepped onto the historical stage.
Its upper reformers launched and led the reform movement; Among them, the lower revolutionaries initiated and led the Revolution of 1911.
The national industry in this period has the following characteristics:
A. uneven development of light and heavy industries. Modern China lacked primitive accumulation of capital, modern investment mode and solid economic foundation, so national industry could only start from light industry with less investment, short cycle and quick results. Therefore, the early national industries in China were basically light industries.
B. uneven regional distribution.
C there are contradictions between national industry and foreign capitalism and domestic feudal forces.
Reasons for the initial development of national industry
(1) The Westernization Movement developed national industry because the country was backward and beaten, and the development of national industry and commerce was always carried out under the national theme of saving the nation from extinction. /kloc-at the end of 0/9, imperialist countries stepped up their global expansion. China's fiasco in the Sino-Japanese War and the surrender policy of the Qing government stimulated the ambitions of the great powers to carve up China. Just after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 was extinguished, the great powers scrambled to become China's creditors and seized the right to build railways, open mines and set up factories. Capital export has become the main way for imperialism to invade China's economy, while commodity export continues to expand, which objectively further destroys the natural economy of China society.
(2) The failure of the Sino-Japanese War marked the bankruptcy of the Westernization Movement and exposed the corruption and incompetence of the Qing government. In order to expand financial resources, pay huge compensation and solve the financial crisis, the Qing government was forced to relax the restrictions on private factories. Therefore, there is an upsurge of setting up industries in China.
Historically, the Westernization Movement is a stage in the development of China's national industry, which has two processes: first, it is official, represented by Zeng Guofan, Zuo and Li Hongzhang; So people woke up, and many national enterprises appeared, such as Hou and Zhan Tianyou. From the Westernization Movement to the eve of the First World War, it constituted the first stage of the development of China's national industry. During World War I, China's national industry entered a golden age, and its soul basically took shape.
The influence of the initial development of national industry
(1) With the initial development of national capitalism, the national bourgeoisie, as a new political force, began to step onto the historical stage, and the reformists representing the upper class of the national bourgeoisie set off a reform and reform movement aimed at saving the country and surviving; The revolutionaries representing the middle and lower classes of the national bourgeoisie launched the Revolution of 1911 aimed at overthrowing the Qing Dynasty and establishing a bourgeois republic.
(2) The initial development of national capitalism not only laid a new class foundation for the development of China's democratic revolution, but also provided an important economic premise and internal motivation for the bourgeois reform and revolution in the early19th century, accelerated the disintegration and collapse of feudal relations of production and political system, and pushed China's modernization from the object level to the system level. ( 19 12― 19 19)
After the Revolution of 1911, especially during the First World War and several years after the war, China's national capitalist industry and commerce developed rapidly, mainly cotton textile industry and flour industry in light industry. In addition, light industries such as matches, wool spinning, oil extraction, paper making and glass have developed to a certain extent. During this period, heavy industry, which is difficult to develop, also developed to a certain extent. Known as the "golden age" of modern businessmen. The development of new enterprises in the "golden age" has different characteristics from the Westernization Movement and the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty. The latter is mainly state capitalism, focusing on the development of heavy industry; The former focuses on private capital and focuses on the development of light industry. The most successful development of light industry is cotton textile industry and flour industry.
During this period, the successful development of national industry can not be separated from the following background:
(1) Support Nanjing Provisional Government
The Revolution of 1911 overthrew feudal autocracy and established the Republic of China, which cleared some obstacles for the development of capitalism in China. 19 12 At the beginning of the year, shortly after Sun Yat-sen took office as interim president, he issued an order of the Ministry of Internal Affairs to protect people's property: "(1) All private property of the people within the sphere of influence of the Republic of China belongs to the people. (2) In the past, it was the official property of the Qing government, but now it has entered the sphere of influence of the Republic of China and should be enjoyed by the government of the Republic of China. (3) The private property previously acquired by Qing government officials has no evidence against the Republic of China, and those that have been protected by the Republic of China should be owned by private property. ..... "The Provisional Treaty Law of the Republic of China also clearly stipulates:" The people have the freedom to keep property and do business. These decrees greatly promoted the protection of private property, broke the restrictions of feudalism and developed private capitalism. "
(2) the encouragement of Beiyang government
After Yuan Shikai stole the post of interim president, he also implemented a relatively loose policy in economy. He also said that "business is free" and "industry should come first". According to statistics, from 19 12 to 19 16, the Beijing government has promulgated more than 80 laws, regulations, detailed rules and regulations on industrial development, involving agriculture, industry, commerce, mining, fisheries, forestry and many other aspects. The main contents are: lifting the restrictions on the establishment of industrial and commercial enterprises by the people; Implement a patent system to reward cotton planting, sugar production and sheep husbandry; Give preferential policies to new enterprises, implement an interest guarantee system, and reduce or exempt taxes on national industrial products and their raw materials; Establish various demonstration sites, popularize technology and persuade people to set up industries; Organize domestic product exhibitions and participate in foreign expositions. These laws and measures have improved the living environment of national economy to a certain extent, thus contributing to the development of national capitalist economy. From 19 12 to 19 19, there are more than 600 new factories and mines in China, among which the textile industry and flour industry have developed the fastest.
(3) Carry out "saving the country through industry" and boycott Japanese goods on a large scale.
The Revolution of 1911 overthrew the feudal monarchy, and the national bourgeoisie was greatly encouraged. During this period, inspired by the victory of the Revolution of 1911 and advocated by some people of insight, some people of insight broke away from the feudal camp as representatives, such as Zhang Jian, Zhou and Rong Desheng, who advocated the development of industry. "Saving the country by industry" and democracy * * * became two major ideological trends that coexisted at that time. Driven by patriotism and profit stimulation, the national bourgeoisie is willing to invest in new industries. The anti-imperialist patriotic struggle of the masses, especially the campaign of boycotting Japanese goods and promoting domestic products launched by 19 15 against the requirements of Article 21, played a particularly important role. "Resisting foreign goods", "developing industry" and "saving the country through industry" are not only the slogans of the national bourgeoisie, but also the patriotic demands of people from all walks of life, which have effectively promoted the development of national capitalism.
(4) World War I provided an opportunity for development.
During the First World War, European imperialist countries were too busy killing each other to look east, and temporarily relaxed their economic aggression against China, giving China an opportunity to develop its national industry. The capital and commodities exported to China plummeted, while their demand for China's raw materials and some commodities increased, which made the China market, which was already very narrow under the control of imperialism, slightly appear some gaps, which objectively provided favorable external conditions for the development of China's national capital. This period was the golden age of the development of Chinese national capitalism, but it didn't last long. The end of the world war interrupted the development trend of national industry. This shows that imperialist aggression is the fundamental factor that hinders the development of national capitalism (especially in early modern times). Without getting rid of the semi-colonial and semi-feudal social status, the national economy cannot develop normally.
For example, China's cotton yarn market has been monopolized by Britain, Japan and the United States, among which Britain has always occupied a dominant position. During the wartime and post-war world capitalist crisis, the output of cotton yarn and cotton cloth in Britain decreased greatly, and the output to China naturally decreased. Japanese cotton yarn could have taken the opportunity to replace Britain's monopoly position in China, but on the one hand, China market basically belongs to roving market, while Japan mainly produces spun yarn in wartime, which is not suitable for China; On the other hand, at that time, the domestic weaving industry in Japan developed rapidly and needed a lot of cotton yarn. As a result, Japanese cotton yarn exports to China have also decreased. The supply of foreign yarn in the market has decreased, but the demand is still very large, which makes the price of cotton yarn rise and the profit increase. Stimulated by high profits, commercial capital turned to cotton mills for investment. Before the war, the investors in cotton mills were mainly bureaucrats, comprador and landlords. However, in the "golden age", most investors who set up new cotton mills were businessmen, especially cotton cloth, cotton yarn and cotton merchants. Businessmen transfer capital from circulation to production, not only out of political patriotism, but also in pursuit of high economic profits. The change of investment purpose shows that the law of value is already playing a leading role, which is an important symbol of the golden age.
Another example is the development of flour industry, which is manifested in the surge of domestic flour exports, from entering the supermarket to leaving the supermarket. The flour industry in China began to develop at the beginning of the 20th century, with a very weak foundation. Domestic demand for flour has always depended on imported foreign noodles. After the outbreak of World War II, countries were busy with war, agricultural production was reduced, civil industries were tightened, and the demand for military food increased greatly, so flour could not be transported to China as before the war. In this way, there is an urgent demand for domestic flour in the domestic market. What's more, during the war, countries also took turns to buy flour from China. First, Russia, then Britain, France, the Philippines, Southeast Asia and even Japan became the targets of China's flour export. The expansion of domestic and international markets has prompted the rapid increase of flour mills. Subsequently, the flour industry appeared merger phenomenon. For example, Rong He Rong Desheng's flour mill with abundant capital did not buy or lease other small factories before 19 14. After 19 14, the proportion of other small factories in Rong flour industry gradually increased, reaching 196544. This trend of capital concentration is also an important symbol of the "golden age" of businessmen.
In the "golden age", some light industries, such as silk weaving, wool spinning and matches, all developed to varying degrees; Some light and small industries that did not exist or were weak before the war were produced because of the reduction of foreign imports, such as the knitting industry monopolized by German goods in the past. After the war, German goods imports dropped sharply, and a knitting factory was built in China for the second time. Only the sock factory opened 19 16 to 1922. In addition, China's national enamel industry, glass industry and rubber industry were also established at this time. The light industry category of national capital is gradually complete, which should be said to be a symbol of the "golden age".
(5) the release of the traditional power structure
The reason for the emergence of the "golden age" of businessmen is generally attributed to the opportunity provided by the First World War. Although individual works note that the economic policies of Yuan Shikai's regime "further removed the obstacles encountered in the development of national industry and commerce", they only limit the "golden age" to Yuan Shikai's lifetime, and think that after Yuan Shikai's death, China entered the dark period of warlord separatism and melee, and the environment for the development of national industry and commerce deteriorated rapidly. So the "golden age" of national industry and commerce is just a flash in the pan. Of the above two theories, the former emphasizes external causes, while the latter focuses on internal causes. The arrival of the golden age of businessmen is actually the result of the joint action of internal and external factors. Moreover, the above internal factors only noticed that the economic policies from the New Deal to Yuan in the late Qing Dynasty were consistent, and the establishment of business gangs and the awakening of merchant class consciousness prepared conditions for businessmen to take advantage of the opportunity of World War I; But it did not pay attention to the deeper internal cause, that is, the relaxation of the traditional power structure. This relaxation trend began in the late Qing Dynasty. The expansion of local governors' power in the Westernization Movement and the subsequent provincial autonomy movements are all signs that the unified autocratic regime is out of control. The Revolution of 1911 defeated the traditional power structure. Yuan Shikai stole the fruits of the revolution, but it was difficult for him to completely restore the traditional power structure. The Yuan regime has always faced resistance from all over the world, especially in southern China. After Yuan Shikai's death, there was a situation of warlord and local separatist regime. The first "golden age" of businessmen in history appeared in the period of decentralized power formation in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. Of course, the warlord regime in the late modern times was completely different from that in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. But as far as the dual influence of decentralized power structure on enterprises is concerned, they are similar.
The loosening of traditional power structure, the stagnation and decline of state capitalism and the resulting weakening of state economic control and intervention are also beneficial to businessmen, that is, giving them more economic and political autonomy. With the development of capitalist economy in the "golden age", the bourgeoisie began to compete with the government economically. 19 16 Shanghai banking boycotted Yuan Shikai's suspension order.
Economic autonomy will inevitably lead to political autonomy, which is an interactive process. In the "golden age", the leadership of the chamber of commerce was transferred from the hands of gentry to the hands of entrepreneurs, which was the result of interaction. ..... After entering the "golden age", the composition of the bourgeoisie has changed, and the number of industrial capitalists investing in new enterprises has increased rapidly, which will inevitably lead to changes in the leadership of the Chamber of Commerce. This evolution is most obvious in Shanghai, where the capitalist economy is the most developed. In a sense, the gentry and businessmen have created a good social atmosphere for the start of capitalist economy with the help of Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce.
The relationship between the arrival of the "golden age" of businessmen and the relaxation of the traditional power structure is obvious. The government's out-of-control of the economy has created favorable conditions for the development of private capitalism. However, the lack of a strong government restricts the sustainable development of private capitalism to some extent. There are three reasons: first, the further development of capitalism requires the establishment of a unified domestic market, which is impossible in the era of warlord separatism. Second, the "golden age" is the relative stagnation of state capital on the one hand, and the outshine others of private capital on the other. Private capital is mostly in light industry and processing industry, but the basic industries and transportation industry, which have a long-term impact on the development of national economy, have not been developed correspondingly because of the weakness of state capital and the weakening of government intervention, which has caused the fragility of capitalist economy and lost the stamina for the further development of private capital. Third, 1922, the world capitalism has fled or is escaping from the crisis it was caught in in the war, calling for "returning to the market" and rearranging its attack on China. In this case, the development of national industries was hit hard, and some markets temporarily gained during the war were lost, and private capitalist industries began to decline from stagnation. The bourgeoisie needs a powerful regime representing its own interests to protect its achievements in the "golden age", but it is impossible to do so under the warlord regime, so the bourgeoisie and the warlord regime eventually turned against each other. 1926 part of the reason for the Northern Expedition was that the growing strength of the China bourgeoisie demanded the establishment of a unified domestic market economically and political power. In other words, it is to continue the "golden age" of businessmen. However, the failure of the national revolution declared the end of the "golden age" of businessmen. ( 1927- 1937- 1945- 1946- 1949)
During the reign of the National Government, due to the oppression of imperialism and bureaucratic capital, China's national industries were shrinking day by day. (1) During the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression period, due to the brutal plunder by the Japanese army in the occupied areas, the four families strengthened their monopoly on the industries in the Kuomintang-controlled areas, especially the bureaucratic capital of the iron and steel industry occupied an obvious advantage, and China's national industries went bankrupt.
(2) During the War of Liberation, the Kuomintang betrayed national sovereignty in an unprecedented way in order to carry out civil war. 1946165438+10 In October, the Kuomintang and the United States signed the so-called Sino-US Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation, which flooded the China market with American goods and dealt a heavy (devastating) blow to national industry and commerce.
(3) The hyperinflation policy of the National Government dealt a fatal blow to the national industry.
(4) The heavy tax burden has caused great difficulties to the development of national industries. (After the founding of People's Republic of China (PRC))
(1) In the early days of the People's Republic of China (1949- 1952), the capitalist economy beneficial to the national economy and people's livelihood was restored and developed under the leadership of the socialist state-owned economy.
(2) In the process of socialist transformation, China's * * * production party adopted the method of utilizing, restricting and transforming capitalist industry and commerce, and adopted a series of transitional forms of state capitalism from low to high, such as processing and ordering, purchasing and underwriting, selling on a commission basis, private-public partnership of individual enterprises and public-private partnership of the whole industry, and paying fixed interest, which successfully realized the socialist transformation of capitalist economy and the peaceful redemption of the bourgeoisie.
(3) By the end of 1956, China had basically completed the socialist transformation of capitalist industry and commerce. Since then, the national industry has embarked on the socialist road.