National consciousness refers to a group of people who share the same blood, language and living habits and think they are different from other nationalities.
Developing this consciousness into a nation-state is the product of feudal system in medieval Europe.
In the feudal era of medieval Europe, civil strife was frequent, and the winners were able to integrate their forces and become the new hegemon of a place, and then used various privileges such as taxation, conscription, legislation and justice to develop their own separatist land into an independent country. In order to consolidate the foundation, they combined with local forces, with special emphasis on national consciousness different from other regions.
This national consciousness originated in the Frankish Empire in the 9th century.
At that time, Charles Bald (reigned from 843 to 877), king of West Franks, occupied the western part of the empire, and Louis Deutschland (reigned from 843 to 876), king of East Franks, took an oath in Strasbourg in 842 to discuss the issue of opposing Lotell I (reigned from 840 to 855), who had achieved the throne at that time.
After the meeting, they deliberately called names in French and German dialects and refused to recognize the legitimacy of lothaire. Therefore, the Strasbourg Oath can be said to be the beginning of the gradual formation of two different nationalities, France and Germany, after the Franks split.
Since 1 1 century, the relationship between Britain and France has been very complicated. For the conflict of feudal territory, the two countries were in the process of feudal war for a long time, which stimulated the upsurge of national consciousness of the two countries. In the Hundred Years' War (1337 ~ 1453), France won the final victory. In addition to Calais, it also seized the territory of the British royal family in its territory and established a nation-state that was no longer interfered by external forces.
Although the British royal family lost in this war, it urged the British king to be closely linked with the interests of Britain from now on, so that he could concentrate on governing Britain. Since then, the French and British royal families have been able to focus on their own affairs and develop into a nation-state with a monarchy.
◎ Figure 3- 1 map of siege in the Hundred Years' War (please refer to the textbook).
Iberia at the southern tip of Europe also established a nation-state at the beginning of the15th century. Since the beginning of the 8th century, this area has been conquered by Muslim Moors from North Africa. After the gradual decline of Muslim forces, the Iberian Peninsula was divided into four countries. Granada is the only place reserved for Moors, and the others are Portugal, Castilla and Aragon, which are made up of local residents. Later, Princess Isabella of Castile (Isabella, 1474 ~ 1504) and Ferdinand of Aragon (Ferdinand,1479 ~16) got married in 1469.
16, 17 The Renaissance and religious reform in the century promoted secularization.
Martin Luther nationalized religious beliefs, emphasizing that the monarch is not only a political leader, but also a protector of people's beliefs. This theological theory of divine right of monarchical power promotes the monarch of nation-state to the supreme leader who combines monarchical power and divine right.
Therefore, the monarch of the nation-state used this authority to establish a state religion and forced the people to accept it. As a result, disputes between countries often turn into religious wars because of religious beliefs, of which the thirty-year war is the largest and most influential.
The long-term war has strengthened the authority of the head of state, and monarchs have also taken the opportunity to gather national consciousness, religious beliefs and national interests and become idols of people's loyalty.
The Treaty of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years' War. According to the treaty, both the Netherlands and Switzerland became independent countries.
The establishment of the United States of America
The United States of America in North America (referred to as the United States) is the first nation-state established after ethnic division in history.
The British arrived in Virginia, North America in 1607, established Jamestown and began to reclaim wasteland.
Since then, groups of pilgrims seeking freedom of religious belief have arrived in northeast North America. They gradually expanded and occupied the neighboring territory, which is called New England.
By 1760, the British colonies in North America had expanded to thirteen states.
Because of the same origin, the colonists in North America regarded Britain as their motherland. The British government and the colonies have always maintained a harmonious relationship. However, in the18th century, when Britain won the Seven-Year War, acquired the land of France in Canada and east of the Mississippi River, and became the biggest colonial enemy in North America, the relationship between the two countries gradually deteriorated.
The main reason for this change is that the British government began to levy taxes on American colonies in order to maintain the stationing expenses of British troops in American colonies. First, the sugar tax was levied, and then the printing tax was increased. The colonial people protested. They believe that the British government's policy towards colonialism violates its own constitutional tradition, and the anti-British sentiment in American colonies is increasing day by day.
1773 12 16 that night, a group of Boston businessmen disguised as Indians boarded a British ship carrying tea and poured all the tea into the sea. Therefore, the British government decided to adopt a tough policy.
Figure 3-5 Boston Tea Event
[Note] The Seven Years' War (1756 ~176; 3) Including two different wars in Europe and America.
In Europe, Prussia competed with France and Austria for Silesia. France and Austria are old enemies, but they formed an alliance to resist Prussian expansion. In the history of Europe, history is called diplomatic revolution. Britain is an ally of Prussia in this war.
This is also a war for overseas colonies, called the Battle of France and India. Mainly the wars between France and Britain in North America and India.
The reason why Britain and France fought in two places;
First, the war plunged the French army into foreign battlefields and prevented them from sending troops back to attack the Prussians.
The other is to seize the French colonies in North America (including Canada) and India. Britain has achieved the expected goal in both aspects.
Question tip: What is the revelation of American independence?
◎ Figure 3-7 Schematic Diagram of American and British Forces
In order to reduce the tension between the two sides, the representatives elected by the American colonies held the first continental conference in Philadelphia on September 5, 774 to discuss countermeasures. All the participants hoped to maintain peaceful relations with the British government, but the British government insisted on eradicating the source of anti-government by military repression.
On April 1775, 18, British troops attacked Concord and Lexington, Massachusetts. People in every state organized militia to resist.
On 1998, the representatives of the states held the second continental congress, and appointed George Washington (173 1 ~ 1799) as the commander-in-chief of the militia, fully resisting the British attack, formally launching the war of independence and creating their own country.
1776 On July 4th, the Declaration of Independence was adopted.
In 178 1 year, 13 states passed the federal provisions, and named this new country the United States of America. With hard work and the help of France and other countries, we won the final victory.
1In the Paris Peace Treaty signed in 783, Britain officially recognized the independence of the United States, with the Missouri River as the boundary and Hedong belonging to the United States.
Although the American independence movement was successful, the Federal Clause hastily concluded that year was too loose to govern this newly established country. On May 25th, 1787, representatives of all states attended the Constitutional Convention and devoted themselves to the formulation of the Constitution. The new constitution of the United States was completed in September of that year and came into effect in June of the following year.
According to the new constitution, Washington officially took office as the first president of the United States on April 30th, 1789.
Figure 3. 12 The American Declaration of Independence and Constitution are currently on display at the National Archives in Washington, DC, USA.
American Declaration of Independence: 1776 On July 4th, the Continental Congress attended by representatives of American states issued the famous Declaration of Independence, which was drafted by Jefferson. Key points include:
(1) All men are born equal and have inviolable natural rights.
(2) The legitimate power of any government comes into being with the consent of the people.
(3) If any government destroys natural human rights, people can overthrow it by force.
These are three important documents in the process of establishing human democratic politics. Quote from: Modern Western History by Wang Zengcai
Italy was founded with the help of external forces.
In the19th century, Italy was just a buried term, not a specific country.
In the Napoleonic era, Italy was influenced by France.
However, after Napoleon's defeat, according to the provisions of the Paris Treaty of 18 15, Italy was divided into the kingdom of Sardinia, the two Sicilian kingdoms, the papal countries and other countries besides the northern part being recovered by Austria.
Later, the great cause of Italy's reunification was accomplished by the cooperation of three nationalists with different political ideas. They are Ma Zhini (1805 ~ 1872), Gafur (18181) and Giuseppe Garibaldi (65438).
Mazzini once joined the secret organization of Bonari, advocating the unification of Italy by violence. Later, the Youth Italian Party was organized in 183 1 to advocate Italian nationalism.
He said: "The nation-state is organized by a group of people who share the same language, history and lifestyle and grew up in the same geographical environment according to the concept of * * * *. 」
Therefore, he particularly stressed that the reunification of Italy must be accomplished by the efforts of the Italian nation itself, and it must not rely on the assistance of foreign forces.
Gafur is a Sardinian, 1852 was appointed Prime Minister by King Vittorio Emanuele II of Sardinia. With practical policies, he launched the great cause of risorgimento.
He knew that the greatest resistance to reunification was the Kingdom of Austria, but Sardinia was not strong enough to resist alone.
So he firmly believes that only by sending troops to help France, Austria's enemy, can Italy be successfully reunified.
In order to achieve this goal, 1854, Gafur decided to take part in the Crimean War, which had nothing to do with its own interests, and showed its kindness to Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte.
Immediately after the war, Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte had a secret meeting with him and signed a secret agreement, promising to help Sardinia reunify Italy by force, but in return, Italy had to pay money to Nice and Savoy.
When the Austrian government learned of the secret meeting between Gafur and Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte, it immediately threatened Sardinia to abrogate the secret agreement, otherwise it would have to go to war with each other. Thus, the two countries officially went to war in April 1859. Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte kept his promise and led 200,000 troops into Italy.
Under the cover of the French army, Sardinia won successively, which not only recovered Lombardy and other places occupied by Austria in northern Italy, but also aroused enthusiastic response from other neighboring city-states and people in the country where the Pope lived.
Unexpectedly, for fear of opposition from Catholics in China, Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte began to stop military aid and sent troops to the papal countries to stop Sardinia from going south. At the same time, he privately negotiated with Austria to allow him to keep Venice in northern Italy.
At this time, another strong nationalist, Gary Boddy, led a thousand red shirts to land in Sicily, and the people on the island responded one after another, and the two Sicilian kingdoms immediately fell apart.
Garibaldi's original plan was to establish southern Italy as an independent country with a harmonious political system to fight against the northern kingdom of Sardinia. However, driven by patriotism, he sacrificed his ideas and generously gave South Italy to Gafur.
186 1 In June, King Emmanuel II of Sardinia ascended the throne as King of the Kingdom of Italy, and the unification of the north and the south of Italy was finally completed. The French army originally stationed in Rome was evacuated due to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, and the Italian army entered the city on September 20, 1870, and recovered Rome as the capital of the Italian kingdom.
The unification of Germany
Germany in the eighteenth century was a divided region.
When Napoleon ruled Europe, the whole Germanic Confederacy was under the influence of France. As a result, French culture and ideas spread all over the Germanic region, except French politics and military affairs.
At that time, Germanic people with lofty ideals had to bury themselves in their studies and wait for an opportunity to arouse Germanic national consciousness.
Prussian philosopher Hurd can be said to be a pioneer in establishing national consciousness from culture. He believes that any culture that belongs to him must contain the spirit of the masses.
Another Prussian patriot, johann gottlieb fichte (1762 ~ 18 14), was deeply influenced by him. During the period from 1807 to 1808 when the French army occupied Berlin, fourteen speeches entitled "Letters to the Germanic Nation" were held in public, which aroused the national pride of the Germans.
After Napoleon's defeat, in 18 18, Prussia organized a "Zollverein", which unified the taxes of northern Germanic ministries and laid the foundation for the economic unity of Germanic countries.
Question prompt: What was Bismarck's strategy in the process of German unification?
At the same time, after King William I of Prussia (William I, 1859 ~ 1888) ascended the throne, he appointed General Mao Qi (Helmut von Mao Qi, 1848 ~ 19 16) as the Chief of Staff and engaged in military affairs. Under the strict training of General Mao Qi, Prussia has the strongest army in Europe.
Therefore, in the19th century, Prussia was the most powerful country in the Germanic world, with economic and military reforms in addition to rising national consciousness. However, the transformation of these resources into the strength of a unified Germanic country will be completed one by one after otto von bismarck (18 15 ~ 1898) becomes prime minister.
Bismarck, known as the bloody prime minister, was a pragmatic politician. He believes that the most urgent task for Germanic countries at present is to expand their economic and military strength, and then give priority to Prussia, unify Germanic countries and create the German Empire.
When King William I of Prussia first ascended the throne, he had a dispute with members of Congress about budget control because he wanted to increase military expenditure. On the other hand, William I thought that the king was the commander-in-chief of the army and should manipulate the power related to armaments, so he refused to make concessions to the Congress.
1862, William I ignored parliamentary opposition and appointed Bismarck, a conservative who despised parliamentary politics, as prime minister. After Bismarck ascended the throne, under the slogan of "Iron Blood", he publicly declared that Prussia was not famous for its liberalism, but for its strong force.
Bismarck believed that Prussia must weaken Austria's position in order to gain a leading position in the Germanic world and realize the great cause of reunification. At that time, under the leadership of Chancellor metternich, Austria organized the German Confederation and controlled the Germanic world. Its ultimate goal is to unify Germany with Austria as the center.
This thought was called "Great Germanism" at the Frankfurt Conference from March to mid-April in 1848, and opposed the "Little Germanism" advocated by Prussia.
Bismarck advocated little Germanism, and believed that the members of the German Empire must be a country composed of Germanic peoples, so multi-ethnic Austria must be excluded. Bismarck knew that to achieve this goal, Austria must be isolated first.
Because Germanic is located between France and Russia, Bismarck used diplomatic skills to gain the commitment of the two countries to ensure neutrality in the conflict between the two countries. After completing the diplomatic deployment, Bismarck went on to create a diplomatic crisis and provoked the so-called Danish war in 1864.
This war originated from the problem of two principalities "Schleswig-Holstein". These two countries are located at the southern tip of the Danish half island. Since the Middle Ages, they have been privately ruled by the King of Denmark, but they do not belong to the Kingdom of Denmark. 1863, the king of Denmark merged Shreved despite international opposition.
Prussia and Austria declared war on Denmark in the name of maintaining the territorial integrity of Shrewsbury. The new army trained by General Mao Qi entered the battlefield for the first time. The allied forces of Austria and Prussia quickly defeated Denmark.
Bismarck used the peace treaty to ambush the reasons for the war between the two countries. As expected, 1866, Austria accused the treaty of injustice and declared war on Prussia, launching the "Seven-Week War".
With France and Russia in the middle, the Prussian army easily defeated Austria. After the war, Austria was forced to dissolve the Germanic Confederacy and quit the movement of unifying the Germanic countries. Prussia combined with the northern countries to form the "North German Confederation", which completed the first step of unifying Germany.
Bismarck knew that he had to overcome the resistance from Britain, France and Russia, especially Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte, in order to truly complete the reunification of Germany. So Bismarck's next step is to overcome this difficulty.
The fuse of the struggle with French Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte was the crisis of Spanish succession to the throne.
Spain 1868 Revolution in September, Queen Isabella II fled to France, and the domestic royal family stopped. Bismarck supported a prince Leopold, who belongs to the Hohensolen family with the King of Prussia, as a candidate and bribed him to be elected.
Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte was afraid that once this became a reality, France would fall into a crisis of simultaneous operations, so he strongly opposed it and declared war on Prussia on July 1870.
However, within six weeks after the war, Pu Jun won successively, first defeating the French army in Metz, France, and then winning the Battle of Sedan on September 1870 and capturing Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte. 187 1 year, General L captured Paris and France surrendered.
The King of Prussia, accompanied by Bismarck, officially announced the establishment of the German Empire at the Mirror Hall of the Palace of Versailles in France on18718. William I, king of Prussia, took the title of "Caesar" and became the first emperor, and stipulated that the king of Prussia would inherit the throne from now on.
Meiji Reform of Japan (1868)
Since the14th century, Japan has been in a state of division due to feuds among governors. /kloc-in the second half of the 9th century, because of the crisis of western invasion, a unified nation-state was established during the reign of Emperor Meiji (1868 ~ 1912).
1600, General Tokugawa Ieyasu defeated the heroes in the battle of Guanyuan and unified Japan. Three years later, the Tokugawa shogunate was established, and the Japanese emperor awarded it the title of "General Conquering Foreign Countries".
Because its base area is Edo in the Kanto Plain, the Tokugawa shogunate era is also called Edo era.
After the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, Japanese people were forbidden to communicate with the outside world. People painting was divided into four hereditary classes: samurai, agriculture, industry and commerce, each with its own affairs. This feudal system maintained peace in Japan for more than 200 years.
◎ Figure 3-24 Tokugawa Ieyasu (Linji Temple)
◎ Japanese shogunate era (1192 ~1867);
Japan entered the shogunate era of feudal separatism from the end of the 12th century, which lasted for more than 600 years.
The shogunate experienced three changes. Initially, the Yuan Dynasty established the Kamakura shogunate, followed by the Muromachi shogunate established by Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, and finally the Edo shogunate established by Tokugawa Ieyasu.
In the shogunate era, the Japanese emperor had no power, just like a puppet, who had the most powerful vassal in the name of "general" and held the state power of the whole country.
At that time, there were two classes in society: one was noble and the other was common people. Class division is very strict, food, clothing, housing and transportation are customized, and they are not allowed to cross. Quote: General History of the World published by Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences.
◎ Figure 3-25 Battle between Guan Yuan and Zhan Ping (maps of Guan Yuan and Zhan Ping, currently in the historical materials preservation meeting of Jingyijia, Japan)
1854, the United States sent matthew perry (1794 ~ 1858) as its special envoy and led warships to Japan twice to discuss trade matters. After several threats of force, the shogunate was forced to sign the Treaty of Intimacy between the United States and Japan, giving the United States the rights and interests of trading, opening consulates, extraterritoriality and most-favored-nation treatment.
Russia, France, Britain and other powers saw that Japan signed a contract with the United States and wanted to ask for help in signing a contract with Japan. Under the common coercion of all countries, the Tokugawa shogunate signed an unequal treaty with other countries in 1858, similar to that of the United States. The prestige of the shogunate was dealt a fatal blow.
◎ Figure 3-26 Peili Shanzhai Map
Figure 3-27 Perry
Under the imperialist aggression, the humiliation of unequal treaties and the weakness of the shogunate, the Japanese people's high national consciousness was aroused. The people of the whole country organized a closing movement to respect the king and resist the foreign countries.
Tokugawa Ito, the last general of Tokugawa shogunate, was glad that the public opinion was irresistible, but he cancelled the shogunate at 1867, which would be great.