First, oppose happiness theory and transcend virtue.
Augustine was the first thinker who defended Christianity from philosophy. In the history of ethics, he was also the first theorist who devoted himself to laying the foundation for Christian ethics, which had a far-reaching influence on later thoughts. Haukeller pointed out that "medieval ethics began with Augustine" (Haukeller, S.7). As a theologian in the Middle Ages, Augustine inherited Plato's legacy and drew a clear line with the traditional "happiness theory" in moral theory.
Plato insisted that happiness depends on virtue. In the Republic, Plato discussed the relationship between goodness and virtue (justice, etc.). ) and happiness from the standpoint of epistemology. He thinks that people who love wisdom have the highest happiness, so they are just and their lives are the happiest. He said, "Compared with the happiness of knowing and dedicating to the truth, all other happiness is not true happiness" (Plato, p. 368). It is in this sense that Augustine believes that "Plato's philosophy is closest to Christianity in theoretical philosophy" (Augustine, 1962, Ⅲ.3; Have you seen K? No. 143, North Carolina, USA). In Philippians, Plato closely linked kindness with a good life. He mainly discussed whether happiness or knowledge is the best in life. His conclusion is that knowledge is above all happiness. In other words, among all physical and mental happiness, "knowledge is the highest happiness". (See Miao Editor, p. 355; See also Plato's Preface) Although Plato's views in these two books are not consistent, one thing is consistent, that is, goodness or understanding of goodness is the standard or measure of happiness. Of course, the latter emphasizes the knowledge of good deeds and is sometimes called practical wisdom.
Aristotle pointed out in the first volume of Nicomachean Ethics that the life of speculation and meditation is the happiest compared with the life of enjoyment and political life. Moreover, he believes that happiness is the ultimate and self-sufficient and the purpose of all actions. Moreover, from the functional point of view, rational activities are inherent in people. Therefore, he said, "human goodness is a realistic activity in which the soul conforms to virtue, and it should conform to virtue all its life" (see Aristotle, page 6, 10, 1 1). But Aristotle's view of happiness has much less influence on Augustine, because Aristotle's theory of virtue and happiness are mixed together. Augustine mainly inherited the Platonism tradition.
Augustine resolutely opposed Epicurus' theory of happiness. He said: "Epicurus believes that the greatest happiness of human beings should be found in the body, and hope should be pinned on themselves" (lecture 150, 7.8, quoted from Copstein, page 1 14). Augustine affirmed the Stoic theory of virtue to a certain extent, because it opposed the blind pursuit of happiness, paid more attention to the inner transcendence of spirit and advocated abstinence. For example, seneca, a representative of Neo-Stoicism, believes that happiness must be guided by nature, happiness is not an end, and happiness without virtue guidance is blind. Although Seneca's view is closer to Christianity than Epicurus', it is still quite different from Christianity's view of happiness. Because in Augustine's view, being born according to nature means being born according to people's own wishes, so no matter how hard they try to temper their virtue in order to live a happy life, their virtue is a secular virtue, which violates the principle of "being born according to God" in Christianity. Such ethics still hasn't got rid of the rationalist centralism mode of "virtue is knowledge". Christian ethics is the ethics of love, which emphasizes the love for God. A happy life is not self-satisfaction, but grace makes people satisfied. Therefore, Augustine is not only different from Aristotle, but also impossible to agree with Kant's theory of virtue of rational will. Because Kant once said: Happiness (personal happiness) is "satisfaction with one's own situation". The happiness of others is the consideration of others' situation, which is what he called the principle of responsibility: "You should not act unless you are willing to turn your own rules into universal laws" (Kant, p. 19-20).
Augustine believes that the theory of virtue emphasizes the self-improvement of reason and the freedom to transcend external things, which is consistent with the goal of Christian morality. However, as long as we stick to traditional rationalism and take epistemology as the premise, we can't guarantee people's happiness and perfection of virtue. In other words, such virtue does not mean true happiness. Therefore, it is Augustine's most urgent task to transform and transcend the "theory of virtue" and establish the Christian ethics of "love".
We believe that the defect of Greek virtue theory lies in the lack of full reflection on the self-improvement ability of moral subject-human beings, and the possibility of blindly believing in rational control and surpassing perceptual objects and desires. How can such rationality become the standard of distinguishing good from evil and achieve human virtue? Augustine pointed out the dilemma faced by Greek "theory of virtue" to a certain extent, and triggered a reflection on the limitation of rationality in the history of western thought.
Second, the key to happiness.
Augustine pointed out at the beginning of his book On True Religion that "only true religion can open the way to a better and happier life." This religion worships only one god, a god who creates, perfects and embraces all things in the universe. (Augustine, 1962, i.1). Augustine thinks this religion is Christianity. In order to demonstrate the rationality of Christianity, he made a double argument on the philosophization of Christianity and the Christianization of philosophy.
Augustine pointed out that the philosophical spirit of Socrates and Plato is valuable to Christianity. He pointed out that those who once preferred to worship many gods as the true God and the Lord of all things were reckless. Although their schools of wise men (philosophers) are different, their temples are still the same. Socrates and Plato knew this well, but their hearts were full of fear and anxiety. Because Socrates understands that any works in nature should be attributed to God's predestination, and these works are far better than those of human artists, so they are more worthy of God's praise than the objects enshrined in temples. Therefore, Socrates tried to awaken those who worshipped polytheism. At the same time, he also wants to point out to those who regard the visible world as the supreme divinity that if any stone is worshipped as the supreme god, it will have hateful consequences. However, as long as they hate doing this, they should change their views and look for this god who is far beyond the human spirit and creates all souls and the whole world. Plato also believes that truth should not be seen with the eyes of human body, but with the pure spirit of human beings, because truth is unchangeable and eternal, is the unchangeable form of things, and is as beautiful as ever. Truth has no space, no distance, and no time passes. This eternal enjoyment of God belongs only to the soul of reason and spirit, and can only be watched rationally in spirit.
Augustine's accommodation of Plato and Socrates stems from their emphasis on spiritual values. He paid special attention to the consistency of spiritual values between Christianity and Platonism, especially in his youth. He believes that Christianity is a real philosophy and a real religion, "they are the same" (Augustine, 1962, section 8). Christianity is true philosophy because true philosophy is nothing more than a rational interpretation of true religion, that is, an interpretation of Christianity's remarks about personality god. Of course, they are different in the following aspects; As a real religion, Christianity has made use of these mysterious remarks, and as a real philosophy, it is still an interpretation of the remarks of personality gods. In addition, "Christianity, as a true religion, serves ordinary people" (Augustine, 1973, 7. 12). Augustine thought Plato neglected the happiness of ordinary people. Christianity is not the religion of educated people, but a real philosophy. Learned people don't have to believe philosophical myths or understand the Bible word for word. In order to rationally understand the truth of Christian teachings, they can only and should make a philosophical interpretation of the Bible. So Christianity is philosophy for philosophers and religion for ordinary people.
The early Augustine believed that only Christianity could do this with the help of authoritative Jesus: today almost all people no longer care about sexual desire, wealth and honor, but only focus on truth and God. Some people do this because the Christian authorities ordered them to do so, while others understand that the requirements of the Bible are reasonable. Later, Augustine revised some of his early philosophical views, or at least limited them. Although, as a bishop, he also demanded the rationality of Christianity, at least in the basic characteristics, he was a Platonist and insisted on his early philosophical interpretation of God. But later he mainly used mysterious language, and he became more and more familiar with the orthodox language tradition. As a missionary and bishop, he turned to a different audience and reader circle from his early works, mainly composed of ordinary people. Despite this change in thought, Augustine's view that Christianity is the unity of true philosophy and true religion has not changed in principle, which established his position as a mentor of medieval philosophy. "Christianity is a real religion" guarantees his orthodox position in theology, and "Christianity is a real philosophy" guarantees his rational character in philosophy. For example, although his City of God is a later work, it is undoubtedly made to defend the orthodox position of Christianity. But it is mainly written for cultural people, far more philosophical than those explanatory works and sermons written for Christian parishes. Augustine's intention is to show that the prediction of Christianity needs a rational explanation of philosophy, otherwise, Christianity cannot ensure its orthodox status.
Thirdly, "Happiness is the property of God"
Happiness also constitutes the theme of Christian philosophy. As the famous medieval philosopher Copstein said, "Augustine's ethics and Greek ethics have a common feature, that is, the theory of happiness" (Copstein, p. 1 14). In essence, Christian moral theory should not only care about people's good life, but also pay attention to how to live a good life. Happiness lies in inner peace, and peace lies in man's transcendence, surpassing everything and getting rid of the fetters of the material world on the soul.
Augustine believes that happiness is the ultimate goal of human behavior and the pursuit of eternal things. But this goal cannot be achieved in the secular world: no limited existence and external goodness can satisfy people, and inner peace cannot be guaranteed. Happiness can only be found in the eternal God. Finding God depends on will and love, not reason and knowledge. "Love God" is a cause that people can't accomplish alone: because of original sin, people's will is limited; Compared with the existence of God, the existence of man is nothing. "A rational creature ... is created in this way. It can't be good in itself, but it can bring happiness to itself" (letter collection 140.23.56, see Copstein, page 1 14). Therefore, people need the grace of God. "The word of the law is to seek grace, and grace is given to complete the law" (Spirit and Faith 19.34, see ibid., p. 1 17). "What makes you happy is not the virtue of your soul, but the person who gives you virtue. He touched your will and gave you the ability to act "(Preaching Collection 150.8.9, see ibid., p. 1 14). What can give people happiness is neither Epicurus' ideal nor Stoic's ideal, but God himself. "Therefore, seeking God is the envy of the most blessed, and finding God itself is happiness." (On the Virtue of the Christian Church I. 1 1. 18, see the same as above). Augustine said, "If our hearts don't rest in your arms, there will be no peace" (198 1 year, i. 1).
Augustine first made a structural analysis of human existence. Existence, survival and understanding are the trinity structure of the soul, understanding is the nature of the soul, and happiness is the same goal of existence, survival and understanding of the soul. Existence corresponds to goodness, and survival corresponds to the movement from great goodness to small goodness, that is, pain, finiteness, nothingness or non-existence. Understanding the relationship with God is a bridge between existence and non-existence, finite and infinite, and it is a way of existence. In the Greek theory of virtue, goodness depends on understanding, and happiness also depends on people's rational ability and realistic virtue. There is no intermediary between existence (goodness) and understanding (rationality), and there is no connection between existence and finiteness.
Augustine inherited Plotinus's order theory and put forward a unique concept of "position" when dissecting human soul. The human soul lies in a bottom-up trinity structure, that is, "tangible things, soul and God" (1972a, Ⅱ.11). "Under God, above body" is the standpoint of human existence. All human happiness and misfortune, good and evil, are related to "position". A person who can keep his position is happy, otherwise it is unfortunate: the former is good and the latter is evil. Therefore, people must first understand their own position. Being a good person means living in your own place. Augustine said: "The question of happiness depends on: In order to be a happy person, one should know what he can ask for and what he should desire" (1972b, i. 10). The object of happiness that people pursue must meet two conditions: first, the object must be lasting and eternal, which can neither depend on happiness itself (limited goodness) nor belong to anything accidental; Second, what people want can't be dead and changing. According to the standpoint of human existence, all material existence (tangible things) can not meet these two conditions, and only God has such qualifications, because he is not only eternal, but also enduring, perfect infinite existence and unconditional goodness. Whoever has such goodness will live well and be blessed. So Augustine said, "He who has God is happy" (ibid., i. 15438+0). Anyone who loves and possesses temporary and accidental things is doomed to be unhappy, such as sexual desire, wealth and honor, which can't satisfy people because their goodness is limited. Nor can it act as the motive force of morality. Because their position is below the soul: the soul turns its back on the God above it and tends to everything below it. This movement of will is the lack of goodness.
In order to demonstrate this point more fully, Augustine introduced the concept of "scale". He believes that to live according to his own position is to live according to an appropriate degree. Therefore, a happy person is happy not because he has good things, but because he has self-control, while an unfortunate person is because of "excess" or "lack of excess" in life. So, what is the appropriate degree? Certainly not the body, because the soul is higher than the body; It can't be the soul itself, because the soul cannot measure itself. This degree can only be God above the soul, and only God can promote the soul. In this way, living according to one's own position and living according to an appropriate degree are the same meaning, and both live according to God's will. Living by God means "governing the body according to God", which is happiness.
"There is God" has three meanings: one is to do what God wants to do, that is, to carry out God's will; Second, be good at life; Third, the soul is pure. These three are consistent. Augustine believes that having God makes people happy because people who have God no longer have any "wants" and their souls are in a perfect state, while unfortunate people are unfortunate because their souls lack unconditional goodness. However, Augustine emphasized that there is a God to make people live well, but it cannot be said that people who live well have a God. A good life emphasizes one's own advantages, which is one's own business. Belief in Christianity and virtue in Greek philosophers. It is people who strive to improve themselves and satisfy themselves with virtue. If a good life makes people have God, then we will inevitably come to the conclusion that people's happiness (or happy life) depends on themselves and has nothing to do with God's redemption. As mentioned above, living in your own way is precisely the root of misfortune and the opposite of morality. This is why Augustine opposed the traditional Greek concept of happiness (virtue theory).
A better life is divided into two steps: first, understanding and philosophical interpretation of Christian truth; Secondly, believing in and following God is the development of the view that Christianity is the unity of true philosophy and true religion. In other words, a good life is just following God, not owning God, which is the premise of happiness, not the guarantee, and the goal of faith, not the completion of faith. Augustine once said that understanding is to find God, and faith is to find (enjoy God). And "having God" is not the work of faith, but the result of grace. Grace makes people live well and happily. Living well is the reward of having God, just as understanding is the reward of faith.
Augustine's profundity lies in: on the one hand, he emphasized that it is very important to be good at life and understanding, and people's subjective beliefs are also indispensable. He attaches great importance to the positive significance of morality on the subjective level, which is the absorption of the traditional Greek "theory of virtue" by the philosopher Augustine. On the other hand, Augustine, as a Christian, based people's happiness on God's external grace: "Whoever has a gracious God is a happy person" (1972 B., II.20). As far as its overall characteristics are concerned, Christian orthodox Augustine has the upper hand.
Fourth, the lack of spirit and love ethics.
As mentioned above, Augustine inherited the trinity theory of neo-Platonism and described human existence as a trinity structure. In the hierarchy of "body, soul and God", existence is rising step by step, not falling step by step. In God's view, God and existence are directly the same, and God is the supreme existence, perfect and true. Unfortunately, there is no supreme, perfect and real existence, that is, there is no God yet. It is this inner lack of soul that urges it to seek truth and possess God. The process of people's pursuit of happiness and transcendence is the process of gradual transition from lower perfection to higher perfection. As R. Voss said, "As long as man is still looking, he may miss the meeting with God. He hasn't been filled, and he hasn't reached the scale of his heart. As far as integrity is concerned, he still lacks happiness. Because god, as the goal of the road to the soul, is close to the soul, but at the same time it is far away. On top of human life, there is a unique tension: at the same time, people always have to become what they always have; He owns God and doesn't own God at the same time; He is good at taking God as a task. As long as man does not have God, he has no control over himself. " (see 1972b, "einleitung"). Voss accurately expressed Augustine's understanding of the meaning of life.
Augustine pointed out that in the absence of human existence, the first is the lack of reason or spirit. On the surface, people suffer from lack of wealth, or they are uneasy about lack of knowledge. Actually, this is an illusion. He said that it is unfortunate that a person is proficient in all knowledge but does not know God. On the contrary, it is blessed to know God without knowing all this. A person is not more blessed because he has knowledge. On the contrary, if we can know God, respect God and prevent our thoughts from falling into fallacies, then his happiness will be entirely attributed to God (198 1 year, ⅴ.4.7). No spirit is no different from ignorance. Ignorance "is the opposite of wisdom, just like death and life, happiness and misfortune, and there is no intermediary between them" (1972b, Ⅲ.30). Unfortunately, people are poor and ignorant. Unlucky people suffer from want and ignorance. Augustine said: "All evil spirits can be understood under the concept of ignorance" (1972b, Ⅲ? 30)。 In his view, having wisdom is consistent with having God. Wisdom means "knowing God through thoughts, that is, enjoying God" (ibid., Ⅲ.34). This means that people give up on themselves. And giving up on yourself must be wise. However, having wisdom is a process. As long as people are still seeking God, people will not enjoy the source itself, nor will they enjoy the fullness of the source. That is to say, when people have not reached the perfect scale, although God's grace has appeared, people are still not wise and unhappy. People's thoughts can't be completely satisfied, and people's life can't be said to be truly happy, because people haven't lived the best life yet. The best life is the best life that human virtue wants, that is, God.
Augustine is unique. He did not deny the significance of people knowing other truths. On the contrary, he attaches great importance to the importance of ideas to people. He emphasized that people should have a full understanding of what is under the soul, and the self-knowledge of the soul is a necessary condition for the road to happiness. Augustine once put "Bi" between soul and God, and formed a four-level existence system of "subject, Anima, Bi and Dehousse" (tangible things, soul, spirit and God). As analyzed by S. gilson: "The study of truth is an absolutely necessary condition for happiness" (gilson, S.30). There is a perceptual desire in people's hearts, which must be made the best and led by reason, so as to achieve the best rational exploration. In this sense, Augustine praised Plato's philosophy as the best philosophy, "because it makes the body obey the soul and the desire is subject to sexual domination" (1855, ⅷ.8; See 1997, ii.8.26). Of course, thoughts can't ensure people's happiness, and they don't constitute the essence of a happy life. People's understanding of things can only reach a certain degree of limited goodness. Thought is suitable for theoretical observation, not for love. Because love is a command and a requirement, but it does not belong to the category of thought.
Augustine once pointed out that love for God is the highest state of virtue when he discussed the three virtues of man: faith, hope and love. Although aid is based on faith, it is greater than faith and hope and determines both. Whoever has just love will undoubtedly have just faith and hope. Human beings are happy because of just love. He who loves God is happy, but he who loves himself is unfortunate. Two kinds of love constitute two cities, namely, the city of God and the city on earth. Because Augustine believes that having God is equal to loving God (and then loving neighbors), the goal of happiness and the way to achieve happiness are integrated into love. Even if this love for happiness is a virtue, it is different from the traditional Greek virtue ethics; Compared with secular virtues, this kind of love (including faith and hope) is a sacred virtue. So he said, "As far as I am concerned, the simplest and truest definition of virtue is the order of love" (1855, XV.22). Augustine believes that "loving God" is a process of soul transcendence and self-denial, which is contrary to the traditional Greek self-affirmation. Love means modesty and humility, which is the opposite of conceit and pride. If a soul loves itself more than God, it will be trapped in infinite want, and its inner peace, satisfaction and happiness will not be realized.
In a word, "happiness means having God". This is his prescription for human happiness based on the Christian position. Happiness depends on people's recognition of their status. The correct position of human existence is: higher than all things and lower than God. His conclusion is the same as that of the Greek sages, but in a different way. As far as the human soul is above everything else, he and the Greeks belong to the same place; But as far as how man transcends everything, he and the Greek sages take different paths. This is the characteristic of Augustine's thought, which truly embodies Augustine's attempt to integrate Greek philosophy and Christian thought, and shows the common goal of Christian moral theory and Greek "virtue theory" in moral value: to transcend the limitations of tangible things and perceptual desires.
From the reality of western ethical history, Christian moral values do have problems, so it was strongly criticized by the Enlightenment in modern times, because it led people's happiness to another illusory world and sacrificed people's secular happiness. However, if we carefully study Kant's theoretical defense of modern enlightenment, especially his demonstration of moral philosophy, it is not difficult to find that the purport of Kant's moral philosophy lies in criticizing the "happiness theory" of modern utilitarianism, because modern "happiness theory" tries to get rid of the bondage of God's eternal law, and at the same time sacrifices the transcendence spirit that "virtue theory" has been striving for since Socrates, so that when it comes to French materialists, people are completely subject to the natural causal law. Therefore, Kant defended freedom by reviving the theory of virtue. Of course, his "revival" was not a simple return to the Greek "theory of virtue", but was carried out under the dual background of Christianity and rationalism. Focusing on the finiteness of reason, he demonstrated the universality and compulsion of moral laws, re-established the existence of God and the immortality of the soul, so as to realize people's moral needs (perfection). Therefore, we think that Kant's Theory of Virtue pays more attention to the strictness and purity of moral subject, and pays more attention to responsibility and people's transcendence motivation. At this point, Christian moral theory has had a positive impact on Kant to some extent. It is in this sense that Nietzsche subverted the "theory of virtue" and Christian moral tradition since Socrates (including Kant) into "slave morality" when reassessing all values.