2. Daniel Garber, Michael Ayers (editor. ). Cambridge history of philosophy in the 17th century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998.
3.[ France] Descartes: Reflections on the First Philosophy, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1986.
4.[ Netherlands] Spinoza: Ethics, 97 pages, Beijing: Commercial Press, 1983.
5.[ English] Bacon: New Tools, Beijing: The Commercial Press 1984.
6.[ English] Locke: On Human Understanding, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1959.
7.[ English] Hume: On Human Nature, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1980.
8.[ France] Rousseau: On Social Contract, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1980.
9.[ Germany] Cassirer: Enlightenment Philosophy, Jinan: Shandong People's Publishing House, 1988.
10.[ Germany] Kant: Introduction to Future Metaphysics, Beijing: Commercial Press, 1982.
1 1.[ Germany] Hegel: Phenomenology of Spirit, Beijing: Commercial Press, 198 1.
12.[ Germany] Nietzsche: Will to Power-An Attempt to Re-evaluate All Values, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 199 1.
(D) 20th century western philosophy
1. Zhao Dunhua: A New Edition of Modern Western Philosophy, Beijing: Peking University Publishing House, Du Fu, 200 1.
2.[ Germany] Wolfgang: Mainstream of Contemporary Philosophy (up and down), Beijing: Commercial Press, 2000.
3. Xu Youyu: Copernicus Revolution, Shanghai: Shanghai Branch of Sanlian Bookstore, 1994.
4.[ Australia] Bathmore: a modern philosopher of a century of philosophy, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1996.
5. Hong Qian, editor-in-chief: Logical Empiricism, 7-8 pages, Beijing: Commercial Press, 1989.
6.[ Germany] Wittgenstein: On Logical Philosophy, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1996.
7.[ Germany] Wittgenstein: Philosophical Studies, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1996.
8.[ America] Spielberg: Phenomenological Movement, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1995.
9.[ Germany] Heidegger: Existence and Time, Beijing: Joint Publishing Company, 1999.
10.[ Germany] Gadamer: Truth and Method, Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House, 1999.
1 1.[ France] Foucault: Discipline and Punishment, Beijing: Sanlian Bookstore, 1999.
12. Ni Liangkang, editor-in-chief: Facing Facts-Selected Works of Phenomenology, Beijing: Oriental Publishing House, 2000.
13. Hong Handing, editor-in-chief: Understanding and Interpretation-Selected Works of Hermeneutics, Beijing: Oriental Publishing House, 200 1 The widespread spread of modern Christianity in China is a very important historical event in terms of cultural and social influence. However, today, a century and a half later, we reflect on this line and find that both the mentality and reasons of the public and ideology when they accept or reject it, and some scholars' research and understanding of it lack a basic spirit of respecting comprehensive facts and an attitude of rational analysis; There are often many simple accusations and even blind attacks, but there is little in-depth understanding and understanding. In view of this situation, this paper hopes to draw people's attention to the positive impact of Christianity on China society since it was introduced into China in modern times, and to cause great misunderstanding and even misinterpretation, especially to try to clarify this misunderstanding, so as to slightly correct our cognitive deviation, and to arouse our desire for further exploration and thinking.
one
Since the Opium War, Christianity (whether Protestant or Catholic) has spread rapidly in China. According to the report in 1923 China Christian Church Yearbook, "only 126 counties in China are not occupied by Christianity, and the rest have Christian flags." According to the statistics of the English version of China Returning to the Lord published by 1922, during the 20 years from 1900 to 1920, there were more than 366,000 Protestants in China, with a difference of 130, including 6,204 foreign missionaries./kloc-. By 1937, the number of Christians increased to 650,000. The Catholic Church has developed accordingly, and the number of 740,000 Catholics in 1900 and 1920 has increased to more than 1900. By 1936, it has reached 2.8 million people. Many missionaries came to China not far from Wan Li to spread the gospel of God, with pure and kind motives, and had nothing to do with business or politics. Take Ma Lixun, the first Protestant priest in China, as an example. When he applied to come to China from England, he was strongly opposed by the British authorities, and then he moved to the United States for a trip. After coming to China, he was embarrassed by the East India Company. Another example is the victim of Yangzhou religious case, and Dai Desheng, the founder of China Mainland Missionary Society, once said, "If I have 1,000 pounds, China can take it all. If I had a thousand lives, I would give them all to China. " In the Boxer Rebellion (the Boxer Rebellion), 58 people were killed and 2 1 child was killed in the inland society founded by Dai Desheng. However, in the claim after the event, Dai Desheng voluntarily gave up the claim for compensation, even if the China government was willing to pay compensation, it would not accept it, so as to draw a clear line with the unequal treaties.
After a large number of priests came to China, they went deep into the mainland, prepared for hardships, preached and taught, and did a lot of useful work for the people of China, which had a wide impact. Such as educating the common people, medical assistance, orphans and widows, helping the victims, getting rid of superstitions, giving up opium, banning gambling and abolishing prostitution, and liberating women. The schools run by China Church have made amazing progress. 1889 The total number of students in missionary schools is less than 17000. By 19 18, there were about13,000 missionary schools with a total of about 350,000 students. It is estimated that by 1926, there will be about 15000 missionary schools with about 800,000 students. By 1937, the total number of students in missionary schools was estimated to be about 1 10,000, including about 8,000 college students, about 90,000 middle school students, and the rest were primary school students and some seminary students. Among them, Christianity is dominated by universities, while Catholicism is dominated by primary schools and theology. According to statistics, in 19 14, there were more than 12000 missionary schools with about 250,000 students. At that time, there were 57,267 official schools in China, with about 1.63 million students, 5: 1 schools and 6: 1 students. This shows the proportion of church education at that time. The church attaches great importance to higher education. According to the statistics of 19 17, in the primary schools run by foreigners, the number of students accounted for 4% of the total number of students in China at that time, in the middle schools, the number of students accounted for 1 1%, and in the universities run by outsiders, the number of students accounted for 80% of the total number of students in newly-built schools in China at that time. Before 1926, there were only 1 national universities, two provincial universities and five private universities in China, while there were 16 universities run by Christian churches, such as Soochow University in Suzhou, St. John's University in Shanghai, yenching university in Beijing, Lingnan University in Guangzhou, cheeloo university in Jinan, Zhijiang University in Hangzhou and Jinling University in Nanjing. Include Fu Jen Catholic University in Beijing, Shanghai Aurora University and Tianjin University of Technology. In addition to general education, the Christian church has also played a very important role in special education for the disabled, especially its pioneering work, which is indelible. In short, in terms of education, as far as the United States is concerned, for example, Guo Moruo reported at the 65th meeting in the State Council on 1950: "According to the survey of 1936, the total' investment' of American churches and relief agencies in China reached $41900,000. Among them, medicine accounts for 14.7%, education accounts for 38.2%, and religious and relief activities account for 47%. " Church education also developed greatly in the 1940s, until 1949, when People's Republic of China (PRC) was founded. As Hu Shi said, "In the past few decades, the church has run many excellent universities and middle schools in China, which have indeed made a lot of contributions and influences on modern academics. Unfortunately, they are all gone now." The establishment of all these schools has undoubtedly played a pioneering role in introducing advanced western science, technology, culture and humanities, introducing new western education systems and bringing up a new generation of people. It had a great influence on the old feudal education for thousands of years, and objectively accelerated the process of modernization in China.
In medicine, according to the Yearbook of Christian Church (No.13 andNo. 1936), there were 34 hospitals founded by Protestant missionaries in China, which were distributed all over the country, and the total number reached 260 when the Anti-Japanese War broke out. Not to mention the hospitals run by the Catholic Church. Cambridge, the History of the Late Qing Dynasty in China, said, "1876,412181patients were treated in 40 hospitals and clinics; Thirty years later, it is reported that at least 2 million patients are treated in 250 Christian hospitals and clinics every year. " Someone summed it up, "From 1835 to 1949, missionary medical service set up 25,000 beds in China, with an investment of 50 million US dollars. On average, about 400 foreign medical staff work in these hospitals every year. " Take the Presbyterian Dr. John Jia, who founded the first mental hospital in China, as an example. From the day when/kloc-0 arrived in China in May, 854 to his death in Guangzhou in August, 2005, he was in charge of Ji Bo Hospital for nearly half a century. According to statistics, Dr. John Jia treated 740,000 outpatients and 40,000 inpatients. He operated on more than 49,000 patients, translated 34 western medicine books and trained 65,438+050 western medicine talents. It can be said that he devoted his whole life to the medical cause in China. According to statistics, before 19 1 1 years ago, westerners translated 100 kinds of western medicine books, covering diagnostics, bandage dressing, dermatology, syphilis, eye diseases, inflammation, medical principles and practice, pharmacology, fever, hygiene, surgery, anatomical physiology and so on. Basically, it was done by missionaries; In addition, they also founded pharmaceutical factories and medical newspapers and periodicals to spread modern medical knowledge. All these actions undoubtedly played a very positive role in the sufferings of the people of China who were in dire straits at that time.
The spread of western scientific and technological knowledge first benefited from the translation of a group of missionaries such as John Flair, Ding Weiliang and Lin Lezhi. For example, John Flair, who has worked as a translator in Shanghai Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau for 28 years, is the one who introduced the western scientific and technological works to China with the largest number of missionaries in China. According to his translation notes, there are 97 western scientific and technological works published from 65438 to 0878, mainly in engineering technology, including mathematics, chemistry, automobile science, astronomy, medicine, physics, military industry and so on. And history and law. According to the statistics of Fei Zhengqing, John Flair "translated 129 books in his life, including 57 books in natural science, 48 books in applied science, 4 books in land and naval science, and 0 books in history and social science." (Many of the so-called "articles" translated here are actually "departments", that is, works.) They not only translated books and works, but also intervened in practice and guided the Westernization School to set up various industries at that time. In short, as someone summed up, "the internal management of newspapers, hospitals and schools run by missionaries in modern China is the product of western capitalist civilization. Generally speaking, these institutions are democratic, scientific in management, efficient in handling affairs, effective in employing people, practical in construction and novel in equipment, which provide reference for the construction of culture, education and medical care in China. "
Politically, as Mr. Fan Wenlan thinks, the Protestant priests in China are "another driving force of the political reform movement". This is reflected in three aspects: first, the spread of the idea of political reform is due to the newspapers opened by missionaries, during which they introduced western culture to inspire people's wisdom. Secondly, William Lichen, a British Presbyterian pastor, established a broad community in Shanghai, with a group of missionaries such as Lin Dongzhi, Ricardo, Ai and timothy richard as the main members. By translating western works, he provided reformers with a theory of reform. Third, the World Bulletin, founded by priests, published many papers on the current situation at home and abroad and major political decrees, which effectively promoted the development of the political reform movement. Fei Zhengqing said, "Christian missionaries played an important role in initially awakening people in China to feel the necessity of political reform (it is said that Kang Youwei told a reporter in 1898 that he turned to advocate political reform, mainly because of the works of timothy richard and Lin Lezhi); In addition, they also helped to form the reformists' own methods, ideas and even world outlook. "During the Revolution of 1911, many revolutionaries had close contacts with Christian priests. Under their influence, many people such as Sun Yat-sen were baptized and became Christians. For the sake of the revolution and the fate of China, they ignored personal safety and small interests, which is really inseparable from the spiritual power provided by faith.
As we all know, Christian churches have done a lot of work and played an important role in caring for children and disaster relief activities in old China, and some of them are even groundbreaking. For example, they set up nurseries, orphanages, schools for the blind and schools for the deaf to receive abandoned babies, orphans and children with various disabilities, and to raise and educate them so that they can grow up and integrate into normal social life. "Before liberation, in Shanghai alone, at least 65,438+08,000 children's bodies could be found in the streets or garbage bins every year. In the face of famine, groups of babies were abandoned. " Especially baby girls. The nursery is a charity for this situation. Notre Dame Nursery opened in 1867. "According to the accumulation, by 1935, more than17,000 babies have been accommodated." Of course, many nurseries have frequent outbreaks of infectious diseases and high mortality due to poor conditions. In this case, some gentry and others fabricated all kinds of absurd rumors to encourage people who don't know the truth to make trouble, which is one of the important reasons for many religious plans. However, in any case, we should have a sympathetic understanding of this kindness and care for orphans, and should not be demanding perfection. I'm afraid what was the motive when it was established. After all, we are abandoned babies, and others adopt abandoned babies for us. After all, none of us first thought of building a nursery or orphanage. Disasters were frequent in old China. Every time a disaster occurs, many missionaries go to the disaster area to learn about the disaster situation, distribute relief supplies, comfort the victims, and carry out fund-raising activities at home and abroad. They also set up various disaster relief organizations to engage in long-term and systematic disaster relief work. ①
In addition, with the efforts of missionaries, many bad habits in China's old traditions, such as foot binding, concubinage, and keeping maids, have been completely or greatly changed. For example, women's football in China was first advocated by Timothy Richard and others. He set up a pedicure club in 1895, and used the books and newspapers of Guangdong society to publicize everything. They ran around and gave speeches at the meeting, which finally created an atmosphere and completely eradicated the old habits that had been practiced for thousands of years in just a few decades. They also prohibit concubinage and keep maids, oppose prostitutes and try to make them better. In the anti-smoking campaign, the church presided over and promoted various organizations to quit smoking and made every effort to curb the spread of opium throughout the country.
Finally, I conclude with the following passage, in order to arouse our due introspection: "Christianity is useless and solid in China, but it is beneficial to China. For example, the achievements of Christianity in education, society and morality can be tested and cannot be erased at once. If they don't believe in religion, they can't criticize everything. Besides, I don't have a construction plan, it's just empty talk. I'm in no hurry. I didn't use this spirit, financial resources and time to do bigger and more important social services. Instead, I want to ignore the construction facts in the church and tear it down. Their patriotic cause of saving lives seems to be slightly inferior to those foreigners who have left their hometown to educate the blind and deaf for my compatriots, wash leprosy, open schools and run hospitals ... We think this is a destructive and negative move, and we see that they need good religion to regenerate their spiritual life. "
two
Since Christianity entered China in modern times, although the ranks of missionaries in China, especially parishioners, are mixed, and the missionary motivation is not pure for everyone, the missionary mentality may not completely avoid the colonial mentality of the condescending western superiority theory; In the way of missionary work, they often rely on the protection of some unequal treaties, putting priests and parishioners in a privileged position; Even among missionaries, some people are doing ugly things in the name of preaching. However, there has been a lot of research in this field. The positive activities and a large number of positive people and things in the process of missionary work have been kept secret for a long time and we don't want to face them, but they are the basic facts and the main facts after all. When explaining and evaluating these facts, I'm afraid it's too simple to just use "missionary means and impure motives". We believe that religion and politics, commerce and imperialist overseas colonial expansion are two different things after all; After all, the bad elements and behaviors in the church should be treated separately from the teachings and the whole church; In the reaction of China people, blind hatred and xenophobia towards religion should also be distinguished from patriotism. It is in the above aspects that we have always lacked a serious rational attitude. We reject basic facts and quantitative analysis methods. From modern times to contemporary times, in the face of the historical facts of the spread of Christianity in China, we often treat it blindly and emotionally, and seldom treat it with sympathy and understanding, whether in the direct treatment of that year or in the subsequent academic discussions.
In terms of treatment, the most typical ones are killing parishioners, killing missionaries and burning churches in the boxer movement. According to the incomplete statistics of Passion of the Boxer Rebellion written by Reverend D.M. Gillivray, from 1900- 190 1 year, 12 months, the Boxer Rebellion killed 5 Catholic bishops, 48 priests and 9 nuns. 188 foreign Protestant missionaries and 5000 Christians were killed, and nearly three-quarters of the churches were destroyed. [12](P5 13) has a series of teaching plans. In the 1920s, there was another non-Christian movement initiated by intellectuals, which lasted for more than six years. The reasons for all these behaviors, events and even movements can be analyzed from four aspects:
First, Christianity is demonized, and many local gentry and people, including many officials, believe and spread all kinds of filthy and absurd false religious statements. For example, the church lures people into religion with ecstasy; Priests can subdue women with skills or rape women with seductive drugs; It is considered fornication for men and women to gather in a room to listen to sermons; Nurseries are accused of "bullying babies, digging eyes and laparotomy, and sucking brains"; Church hospitals are suspected of gouging out their eyes and taking medicine, and western medicine dissects corpses or makes human specimens, all of which are considered to be for all kinds of incredible evil motives; Even the charity run by the church is considered to be just to lure fools into religion; The last sacrament of believers is believed to be that priests gouge out the eyes of the dead as medicine for refining silver and the like. Most of the above imagination comes from the mouth of the gentry, which is far from the reality of Christianity, and whether it is damaged in Christianity can be ignored; But doesn't this reflect the obscenity and filth hidden under the cloak of our culture? Give you a healthy cultural mentality, will you imagine others like this? During the Boxer period, "when explaining the reasons for the repeated failures and heavy casualties in attacking churches, the Boxer always said that it was because the other party had naked women running out of the house;" Guardians hang women's skin and other' filth' on the spire; Foreigners cut open the pregnant woman's stomach and nailed it to the wall. It is said that Catholic guardians also have a' ten thousand women' woven with female pubic hair, which can prevent boxers from being possessed by gods when commanding operations at the spire. " These statements, understood only by the word "ignorance", are far from being in place.
Second, the politicization of Christianity, which many people think is a tool for imperialism to invade China. There are many misunderstandings in this view. There are four reasons: First, the worship of God in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom is the same as that in Catholicism, but it is actually a belief unlike China. The Qing court hated Hong Xiuquan's guts, but also told Catholicism what to do, thinking that he was demagogic and scheming. Second, in the unequal treaties such as the Tianjin Treaty and the treaty of nanking, there are clauses to protect the interests of outsiders and parishioners, thus placing priests and parishioners in a special group, which is far beyond the scope of pure religion. Among them, France's use of political and military power to protect Catholicism is a typical example. They interfered in local administrative and judicial affairs and favored the parishioners, causing great indignation among the officials and the people. In this way, the religious motives of western priests who traveled to China to preach were mixed with the aggression of governments in China, which was difficult to distinguish; Moreover, there have indeed been many incidents that have harmed China's sovereign interests and national feelings. Third, some social surveys, data statistics and map forms made by the church for missionary or disaster relief purposes were mistaken for espionage; In addition, because the missionaries arrived in China and went deep into the mainland, they had no contact with all kinds of religions, and the ways and methods of missionary work were different from those that China people could understand, understand and accept, all of which easily caused suspicion and speculation. Of course, we do not deny that individual missionaries have done ugly things that are not commensurate with their status, nor do we rule out that some statistics and charts have been used by imperialists. Fourth, many converts are of poor quality, and they are really hooligans. They join the church and get asylum. They evade government decrees and taxes and can be given a lighter punishment by virtue of the situation. They dominate the countryside and do whatever they want. Foreign priests often do not observe or find out the truth, and protect it intentionally or unintentionally, thus causing public outrage and contempt for Christianity by officials and gentry. Fei Zhengqing pointed out in The History of Cambridge and China in the Late Qing Dynasty that the number of educated and respected Christians in China has never been insignificant. There are Christians in China, but "they have never been many, and they are almost confined to poor farmers and citizens, criminals and other notorious people, and people who have no place in trading ports. For most China people who are still content with the status quo, such as fish and water, Christianity is not only unattractive, but also seems to be an obvious threat. " Some Christians in China "use their relationship with foreigners to extort money and refuse to pay taxes". What is particularly infuriating is that Christians in China are generally willing to rely on the support and protection of the church to file lawsuits against their non-Christian opponents. Some missionaries (mainly Catholic missionaries) condone and even encourage this kind of behavior. Because they can exert considerable influence on the yamen, they sometimes make judgments that favor Christians and suppress non-Christians. Things are out of control, that is, barbarians will naturally attach themselves to the church, further aggravating the friction between Christians in China and ordinary people in China. Zeng Guofan, who was troubled by religious plans, wrote in his memorial: "Where religious crimes are committed, priests don't ask right and wrong and protect the people; Consuls don't ask questions, Reverend Qu Pei. If there is a struggle between the people and the church, the people will always sing and the people will always win. The stronger the parishioners are, the angrier the civilians are. If you are extremely depressed, you will gather people to think. " Guo Songtao, who was sent to Europe and was extremely open-minded, clearly pointed out in 1877: "Catholicism defends Christianity in the name of protecting its own rights and protects Christianity vertically. So he became a traitor, and he relied on the church as a weapon against officials. Show poison to those who commit serious crimes and seek refuge in the church, as well as those who are attached to the priest as enemies. No one can build a Catholic church in the government, county, hall or town. "
Thirdly, Christianity is heterogeneous in culture, thinking that it has no ethics and belongs to animals. These views mainly focus on the old gentry and bureaucrats. The official records of Hunan gentry in the whole province are as follows, which can explain the general view of the literati class at that time: Catholicism "does not sweep the tombs of the market, does not worship the wooden owners, and has no ancestors;" Father's name is brother, mother's name is sister, and there is no father and son; If the daughter doesn't marry and leave it to the leader, there will be no husband and wife; Regardless of wealth, teaching money is not shameful; No matter men or women, naked bathing is shameless and innocent. "Obviously, some are differences in culture and customs, while others are misunderstandings or even unwarranted. In addition, the petition of the gentry people in Hengyang, Hunan Province was publicly submitted: "Those who steal Catholics from Victoria, the people on the island, are like animals. They have never existed before. " "If he teaches in China, it will be a state of dress etiquette for thousands of years. Once it becomes the territory of insects and people, animals and livestock will be very painful! Isn't it hateful! "Such thoughts and emotions cannot be explained. It has been pointed out that in many anti-religious cases during the Tongzhi period, "gentry figures are often the main planners and instigators, while scholars who take exams at school are often the anti-religious masses." "Speaking of the Boxer Rebellion (the Boxer Rebellion case), 1900 came to Tianjin with the British warship" Orlando "at the end of May and participated in the G? Chief Warrant Officer Ghips wrote a passage in his later North China War: "Every incident clearly shows that the disaster did not come from the people of China, but from the officials and literati of the Qing Dynasty. Although officials and literati are usually not directly involved in atrocities, they instigate and incite mobs to abuse and even persecute Christian barbarians who live in peace. "The above situation, of course, is mainly due to cultural differences and closed ears, leading to great misunderstandings and conflicts in thought and action; But we can't rule out the consideration of realistic interest factors here. Liang Qichao once pointed out, "Wild religion has been in China for hundreds of years, but it is rarely followed by the upper class. "Why? We can think deeply.
Fourth, Christianity is culturally ignorant. It thinks that Christianity and science are completely opposite, and it is equated with superstition of darkness and ignorance. This view is mainly concentrated in a group of new intellectuals who awakened around the May 4th Movement, and has not fundamentally changed so far. 1920' s manifesto of non-religious major league and manifesto of non-Christian league all hold this view. "We vowed to eliminate the poison of religion for human society. We hated the poison of religion, which was ten times bigger than a scourge. Religion can be without people, and people should have no religion. Religion and human beings cannot stand together. " "Ridiculous religion, science and truth are incompatible. Hateful religion is completely contrary to humanitarianism. " "We are particularly opposed to Christianity in all religions." These new intellectuals were all baptized by western science and democratic spirit before and after the May 4th Movement. They are mainly influenced by scientific supremacy, Marx's historical materialism and Feuerbach and Nietzsche's thoughts. In the early 1920s, influenced by the pragmatism advocated by Russell and Dewey when they came to China to give lectures, especially Russell's anti-Christian stance, he resolutely opposed religion, especially Christianity. However, let's listen to different voices at that time. Liang Qichao criticized the telegram of the non-religious alliance "begging for martial arts" and the fierce rhetoric of "killing this food". He believes that this practice has drowned the "serious and solemn spirit" and exposed the "arrogant weakness" of the people. Fu Tong believes that the non-Christian movement itself is religious and unscientific. "What is published is emotional, and it is the opposition of laymen." The History of Cambridge, China in the Late Qing Dynasty pointed out: "One of the main arguments that China people opposed Christianity in the 20th century was that their thoughts were different from the achievements of modern science. Ironically, Protestant missionaries played an important role in introducing western science to China in the19th century. ..... Protestants have written more books on science and mathematics than all other non-religious issues combined. " The existence of this phenomenon at least tells us that the relationship between religion and science is much more complicated than the so-called opposition.
Summing up the above four reasons for anti-religion, we can't find out several ideological tendencies such as obscurantism, nationalism, quintessence, rationalism and scientism, and rarely take into account the overall facts and the depth of academic theory. The second one, that is, political inclination, should be attributed to the colonial aggression and missionary methods of the West, while the other three belong to our own review. Isn't it?
Responder: ken _ su- magic apprentice level 1 6-4 10:09
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844 10 year 10/5-1August 25th, 900) was a famous German philosopher and thinker. Nietzsche was a linguist at first, and later as a philosopher or a free thinker, many of his works contain modern psychology. He is a poet and philosopher full of rebellious spirit. He strongly criticized the western traditional Christian culture, denied the traditional Christian moral system, advocated reassessing all values, and even put forward the proposition of superman and eternal reincarnation, eager to establish a brand-new and powerful ideological and cultural system. In essence, Nietzsche is a nihilist, but the difference between him and Schopenhauer, the spiritual mentor of his youth, is that he is eager to find a meaning in this nihilistic world, or to create a meaning of existence, so as to affirm the value of human existence. His thought laid the foundation for later existentialism and was regarded as one of the pioneers of existentialism. However, because some of Nietzsche's ideas were too extreme and powerful, they were later used by the Nazis and labeled as "Nazi philosophers". As he himself wrote in the book, any greatness will be misunderstood.
Nietzsche's poems
The sun sank to rest behind the hill.
1
You won't be thirsty for long,
Burning heart!
The Covenant floats in the air,
Blowing at me from people I don't know,
A strong chill came. ...
At noon, my sun shines on my head;
I welcome you, you are here,
A sudden wind,
You, the cool soul in the afternoon!
The wind is strange and pure.
Don't look at the night.
The eyes of the tempter
Are you staring at me? ……
Be strong, my brave heart!
Don't ask, why? ——
2
My floating day!
The sun went down.
Flat wave surface
It's already shining golden.
The rocks give off hot air;
Maybe at noon.
Happiness lies in his taking a nap? ——
Under the green light
The brown abyss also shows the shadow of happiness.
My floating day!
It's almost dusk!
Your eyes are missing.
Half the glory,
Pour out like dew.
The same tears,
The white sea has passed quietly.
The red light of your love,
Your last vacillation will last forever.
three
Jin Xiyue, come on!
You're dead.
The most secret and sweet taste!
-Am I walking too fast?
Now, my feet are tired,
Your eyes just catch mine,
Your happiness just catches up with mine.
There are only waves and ridicule around.
Past sufferings,
Sink into blue forgetfulness—
My boat is safe now.
Storms and sailing-I forgot everything!
Desire and hope are gone,
The soul and the sea lie peacefully.
Seven times lonely!
I never felt it.
Sweet peace is closer to me than it is now,
The eyes of the sun are warmer than now.
-Isn't the ice on the top of my mountain still red?
Silver and light, like a fish,
Now my boat is floating on the water. ...
The morality of a star
Destined to go to the orbit of a star,
What does darkness have to do with you, star?
Driving happily through this era!
May its misery have nothing to do with you, stay away from it!
Your glory belongs to a distant world,
For you, sympathy should be a crime!
You only obey one commandment: keep pure!
Respondent: Linnan 7060- Tongsheng Grade 1 6-4 14:40.
I wrote a paper by Nietzsche. How about giving it to you?
Responder: summer again- trainee magician level 2 6-4 19:48
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