Yalta conference. At the end of World War II, the heads of the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union held a meeting in Yalta, Crimea, the Soviet Union, also known as the Crimean Conference. At the beginning of 1945, German fascism was close to extinction, the anti-fascist war was close to the final victory, and the contradiction between the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union became increasingly obvious. In order to strengthen mutual trust, coordinate strategic plans, end the war as soon as possible, arrange post-war international affairs, and maintain post-war peace, the heads of state of franklin delano roosevelt, winston leonard spencer churchill, Joseph Vesaliua O. Norwich Stalin held a meeting in Yalta on February 4 1945+0. The main contents of the meeting are as follows: ① The general principle of dealing with the German problem after the war decided that Germany and Germany must be occupied by the United States, Britain, France and the Soviet Union, and war compensation should be paid to completely eliminate German militarism and Nazism. (2) On the issue of Poland, the three countries decided that the eastern border of Poland should be generally based on curzon line, and made concessions of 5-8 kilometers in some areas, agreeing that Poland would acquire new territories in the north and west, leaving the final demarcation issue to the Peace Conference; After a heated debate on the composition of the Polish government, people agreed to reorganize the Polish interim government in lublin to accommodate other domestic and foreign Democrats. (3) On the issue of the Far East, the Soviet Union promised to participate in the war against Japan within 2-3 months after the end of the European War, on the following conditions: maintaining the status quo of outer Mongolia, returning the southern part of Sakhalin Island and its adjacent islands to the Soviet Union, internationalizing Dalian commercial port, renting Lushun Port as a naval base by the Soviet Union, jointly operating the Middle East Railway and the South Manchuria Railway by the Soviet Union, and handing over the Kuril Islands to the Soviet Union; On the issue of the United Nations, Ukraine and Belarus, which agreed to the Soviet Union, joined the United States as founding members of the United Nations, and decided that the United States, Britain, France, the Soviet Union and China would become permanent members of the Security Council, which stipulated the principle of unanimity among the permanent members on substantive issues. In addition, the meeting also discussed issues related to Greece, Yugoslavia, Italy and other European countries. The meeting signed the Yalta Agreement and adopted the Declaration on the Liberation of Europe and the Declaration on Crimea. The meeting consolidated and maintained the wartime alliance of the three countries, played an important and positive role in coordinating the allies' war against Germany and Japan, accelerating the victory of the anti-fascist war, promoting the formation of post-war peace and stability, and laid the foundation for the establishment of the United Nations. However, some agreements reached at the meeting, without the consent of the countries concerned, have obvious political tendencies of great powers, which have seriously damaged the sovereignty and interests of China and other countries. The arrangement of the post-war world order made by the three great powers at the meeting is called Yalta system, which has a great influence on the post-war world.
The Yalta Conference (the "Crimean Conference") was a key summit held by the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union at Yalta Palace in Crimea Peninsula in the northern part of the Black Sea from February 4, 1945 to February, 1 2005, on the formulation of a new post-war world order and the distribution of interests of great powers. This conference had a far-reaching impact on the development of world history after the Second World War and determined the fate and direction of many countries until today. The heads of state attending the meeting were franklin delano roosevelt (USA), Winston Churchill (UK) and Joseph Vissarion Norwich Stalin (USSR).
This meeting is the second summit of the Allies after the 1943 Tehran meeting. The conclusion of this meeting was controversial at the Potsdam meeting of 1945 in July and August. Many people criticized the meeting for enabling the Soviet Union and the national production parties to control many countries in Central Europe, Eastern Europe and Asia, because during the meeting, American President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill failed to request that the countries "liberated" by the Soviet Union after the war be entrusted to the United Nations. In addition, in order to win the Soviet Union's declaration of war against Japan, some contents in the meeting greatly violated China's rights. Other countries didn't know it before the meeting, so its conclusion was also called "Yalta Secret Agreement".
The meeting agreement includes:
All liberated European countries should hold democratic elections.
A meeting on the establishment of the United Nations was held in San Francisco in April. The organization of the United Nations has been basically determined, and the idea of the UN Security Council has been adopted. The United States and Britain agreed that Ukraine, then the Soviet Union, would join the United States and Belarus as independent members of the United Nations.
Germany was divided, Germans were dissolved, and Germany was no longer allowed to have an army. The United States, Britain and the Soviet Union believe that this is "a necessary condition for future peace and security". Germany should be divided into the occupied areas of the allies. France should also have its own occupied areas and become a member of the control Committee of the German Allies.
Germany should pay war reparations for "the losses she caused to her allies in the war." War reparations can be paid in the form of German national resources (machines, ships, enterprises, etc.). ), compensation payable within a certain time or labor period. The total compensation reached by the United States and the Soviet Union is about $22 billion. Britain believes that the total amount of compensation at that time could not be estimated.
The issue of war crimes was shelved.
In Poland, a "broad democratic interim government" should "hold free and secret elections that are not controlled by other countries as soon as possible".
In Yugoslavia, a coalition government of royalists and producers should be established.
Within three months after Germany surrendered, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan. In return, the Soviet Union gained control of Sakhalin Island and Kuril Islands as well as Dalian, Lushun and their railway connections.
The use of the strait between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, which is managed by Italy-Yugoslavia, Italy-Austria, Yugoslavia-Bulgaria, Romania, Iran and Turkey, has been temporarily put on hold.
All captured Soviet citizens were repatriated to the Soviet Union, whether they like it or not.
Within two to three months after the German surrender and the end of the European War, the Soviet Union and Russia assisted the Allies to participate in the war against Japan under the following conditions:
The status quo of Outer Mongolia (Mongolian People's Republic) must be maintained.
1904 the old rights of the Russian empire violated by Japan's treacherous attack (Russo-Japanese War) should be restored: (a) the southern part of Sakhalin Island and all its adjacent islands should be returned to Soviet Russia; (b) Maintain the priority rights and interests of the Soviet Union in Dalian Commercial Port and internationalize the port; At the same time, the lease right of the Russian naval base in Lushun Port will be restored; (c) China and the Soviet Union set up companies to jointly operate the China-Dragon Railway and the South-Manchuria Railway to safeguard the priority interests of the Soviet Union and Russia. At the same time, safeguard the complete sovereignty of the Republic of China in Manchuria.
The Kuril Islands were ceded to the Soviet Union.
The above-mentioned agreements on seaports and railways in Outer Mongolia and northeast China need Jiang Zhongzheng's consent, and President Roosevelt took measures according to Stalin's notice and obtained his consent.
Cold War
The cold war (1945 to 1990) is simply a western group headed by the United States (that is, the cold war of the North Atlantic Treaty (English: олоднаявр, Russian: р). The word comes from a speech given by bernard baruch in Columbia, South Carolina on April 6, 1947. In addition, Churchill visited the United States in 1946, during which he delivered a famous iron curtain speech: "From Szczecin on the Baltic Sea to Trieste on the Adriatic Sea, an iron curtain across the European continent has been pulled down." Indirectly indicates the beginning of the cold war.
This all-out "East-West" war did not really break out. The biggest reason is that both sides have a large number of nuclear weapons, and a direct conflict may lead to the destruction of all mankind. Therefore, both sides try their best to avoid a full-scale "hot war" (see mutual assured destruction). In fact, they only have serious opposition in economic, philosophical, cultural, social and political positions: the West accuses the East of being undemocratic, totalitarian and autocratic. Eastern countries accuse western countries of "imperialism" and "exploitation of labor", while western countries call them "totalitarian iron curtain" in an attempt to bring democratic countries into totalitarian dictatorship.
The Cold War began at the end of World War II and lasted until the disintegration of the Soviet Union in the early 1960s. The Korean War, the Vietnam War and the Afghan dispute are examples of regional conflicts in several eastern and western countries, but most of the time they are only conflicts between agents of both sides. In these conflicts, big countries only help the countries or organizations they support through funds and weapons. This has reduced the tension of the conflict between the two camps.
One of the main areas of competition between the United States and the Soviet Union is science and technology, and it also includes the covert spy war and political propaganda war between the two sides. Although the spy systems of both sides often adopt the method of secret assassination, there has never been a full-scale conflict between the two camps because of the deterrence of nuclear weapons. Of course, it was not clear at that time whether a small-scale regional conflict would lead to nuclear war. From this point of view, every conflict will cause great concern. This tension has changed the lives of almost everyone in the world like a real war.
Germany can be regarded as the main focus of disputes during the Cold War, especially Berlin. The Berlin Wall is probably the most vivid symbol of the Cold War. This wall separates East Berlin (belonging to East Germany) from West Berlin (belonging to West Germany), and isolates West Berlin from East Germany.
Historical compilation
The study of the cold war in the western world has gone through three stages. In the 10 years after the end of World War II, few scholars will challenge the American official view on the causes of the Cold War: that is, the relationship between the two sides broke down because Stalin violated Yalta's understanding and the Soviet Union tried to dominate the expansionism of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.
But later, many historians put forward another view: the main reason of the Cold War was that the United States tried to protect its global trade interests. Some historians believe that American imperialist ambitions are at least as important as the Soviet actions that led to the outbreak of the Cold War, if not the most important. In short, historians are divided on who should be responsible for the collapse of the US-Soviet alliance during World War II and whether the Cold War is inevitable. The latter view (that is, the United States should be responsible) reached its peak in the Vietnam War, and many people began to think that the United States was not much morally superior to the Soviet Union.
In the late Cold War, historians began to seek solutions to post-revisionism. By the end of the cold war, this school had gained the upper hand. This school of historians does not think that either of the two superpowers should be fully responsible for the cold war, but that both sides should be responsible for the cold war because of their misunderstandings and reactions. Post-revisionist scholars follow the realistic view of international relations and believe that American policies in Europe, such as the aid to Greece from 65438 to 0947 and the Marshall Plan, are necessary.
According to this view, the "* * * proletarian movement" is not the root of the dilemma in Western Europe. On the contrary, the total economic and political war and the social structure of Europe are the fundamental reasons. Marshall Plan rebuilt a good European economic system, thus reducing the attraction of the ultra-left forces in Western Europe. For Europe, economic aid ended the shortage of funds and stimulated investment in post-war reconstruction. For the United States, the plan solved the problem of overproduction and increased American exports. NATO brought western European countries into the same defense system, thus avoiding the expansion of capitalism. The post-revisionist school does not think that productism is expansionary and attempts to overthrow the "free world", but at the same time, they think that American policy in Europe is necessary to ensure the stability of Europe, so as to avoid the power tilting towards the Soviet Union and ultimately endangering the western economic and political system.
Political and diplomatic confrontation between the members of the organization and the eastern European group headed by the Soviet Union (that is, the members of the Warsaw Treaty Organization). The word comes from a speech given by bernard baruch in Columbia, South Carolina on April 6, 1947.
This full-scale "East-West" war did not really break out, and both sides tried their best to avoid a full-scale "hot war". In fact, the two sides are only in serious opposition in economic, philosophical, cultural, social and political positions: the West accuses the East of being undemocratic, totalitarian and autocratic, while the East criticizes the West as middle-class capitalism and imperialism. Eastern countries accuse western countries of "exploiting workers", while western countries call it an "evil empire" in an attempt to spread ideology to democratic countries.
After the Second World War, the socialist revolution, the people's revolution and the national liberation movement flourished around the world, seriously impacting the colonial and capitalist systems. In order to curb and extinguish the development of these revolutionary movements and consolidate the capitalist system, the western ruling group headed by the United States adopted various means to implement the "Cold War" policy. The word "cold war" was first put forward by US Senator bernard baruch in a speech at the beginning of 1946. On March 5th of the same year, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill visited the United States, made a speech against * * in Fulton, and published1the relevant contents of the State of the Union address put forward by US President Truman on March 2nd, 947, which marked that the United States and other western countries formally implemented the "Cold War" policy towards socialist countries such as the Soviet Union. 1947 September, American political critic walter lippmann published a book "The Cold War" and published a series of articles advocating the Cold War. Since then, the word "cold war" has become popular, and the "cold war" policy has become an important means for the western ruling group headed by the United States to contain and destroy socialism and suppress the people's revolution.
The Korean War, the Vietnam War and the Afghan dispute are examples of regional conflicts in several eastern and western countries, but most of the time they are only conflicts between agents of both sides. In these conflicts, big countries only help the countries or organizations they support through funds and weapons. This has reduced the tension of the conflict between the two camps.
Subsequently, the US military listed the "Cold War" as a type of war in the field doctrine. The US Army Operational Outline 1962 divides wars into three types, namely, cold war, limited war and total war. The definition and principle of "Cold War" is: "The Cold War includes all actions except limited war and total war. Hostile countries or alliances can use the cold war to compete ","not only political, economic and psychological forces, but also military forces. The army played an important role in the cold war and can directly or indirectly contribute to the realization of national goals. In order to curb the use of force by other countries, reserve forces can be mobilized or active forces can be launched. " "The line between the cold war and limited war is neither clear nor absolute. Therefore, it may be necessary to use conventional forces for cold war activities that are actually combat operations. " The "Commander's Outline" 1968 version of the US military added that "the stable situation was also included in the Cold War". The "battle to stabilize the situation" mentioned here refers to the battle to suppress and put out people's revolutionary movements all over the world. In the world, wherever there are people's revolutions and national liberation movements, they send troops to suppress them, or provide military assistance and operational support to reactionary governments, or even engage in nuclear blackmail and intimidation and play the trick of "world gendarmerie." In addition, the means of the "cold war" by the reactionary group led by the United States include: sending "peace corps" to infiltrate; Stir up trouble and carry out subversive activities; Take "economic aid" and "military aid" as bait to win over "friendly countries" and expand the sphere of influence; By signing the collective defense treaty to expand the military alliance, the United States has signed common defense treaties with more than 50 countries; Establish military bases in foreign countries and send troops to control strategic locations; Destroy the economic development of socialist countries by means of economic blockade and sanctions; Provoke relations between socialist countries and disintegrate the socialist system; Cultural invasion, the peaceful evolution strategy of socialist countries, and so on. Nevertheless, it did not stop the development of the world people's revolution and national liberation movement. For example, before World War II, there were only 38 independent countries in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania, and now it has grown to 140.
One of the main areas of competition between the United States and the Soviet Union is science and technology, and it also includes the covert spy war and political propaganda war between the two sides. Although the spy systems of both sides often adopt the method of secret assassination, there has never been a full-scale conflict between the two camps because of the deterrence of nuclear weapons. Of course, it was not clear at that time whether a small-scale regional conflict would lead to nuclear war. From this point of view, every conflict will cause great concern. This tension has changed the lives of almost everyone in the world like a real war.
Germany can be regarded as the main focus of disputes during the Cold War, especially Berlin. The Berlin Wall is probably the most vivid symbol of the Cold War. This wall completely separates West Berlin (controlled by West Germany allied with France, Britain and the United States) from the surrounding East Germany.
The study of the cold war in the western world has gone through three stages. In the 10 years after the end of World War II, few scholars will challenge the American official view on the causes of the Cold War: that is, the relationship between the two sides broke down because Stalin violated Yalta's understanding and the Soviet Union tried to dominate the expansionism of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.
But later, many historians put forward another view: the main reason of the Cold War was that the United States tried to protect its global trade interests. Some historians believe that American imperialist ambitions are at least as important as the Soviet actions that led to the outbreak of the Cold War, if not the most important. In short, historians are divided on who should be responsible for the breakdown of US-Soviet relations and whether the Cold War is inevitable. The latter view (that is, the United States should be responsible) reached its peak in the Vietnam War, and many people began to think that the United States was not much morally superior to the Soviet Union.
The armies of various countries are rarely involved in the cold war; The war was mainly waged between the CIA, British MI 6, West German Intelligence Agency, East German National Security Agency, Soviet KGB and other intelligence agencies. The world's major powers have never been directly involved in military conflicts with each other.
Most of the casualties in the cold war may be caused by the attacks of intelligence agencies on civilians or military targets. Spies were sent to the East and West camps, or recruited local intelligence personnel, or even forced to join. Once the spy is found, either kill him immediately or exchange with the hostages captured by the other side. Spy planes and other planes engaged in reconnaissance missions will be shot down as soon as they are found.
The western countries led by the United States stepped up the implementation of the "cold war" policy, which led to the emergence of two major military groups, the United States and the Soviet Union. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) headed by the United States was founded on April 4th, 1949/KLOC-0, and then the Warsaw Pact headed by the Soviet Union was founded on May 4th, 1958/KLOC-0. Since then, the NATO group 15 countries have nearly 6 million troops, and the Warsaw Pact group has 6 million troops. Tens of millions of troops from both sides have begun to be in a state of strategic confrontation. The US 1626 strategic missile and the Soviet 19 10 strategic missile, as well as tens of thousands of operational nuclear missiles from both sides, are all aimed at each other's military, political and economic goals, and are in a state of "pressing the button", which in turn leads to an arms race. The dispute between nuclear superiority and space superiority has become increasingly fierce, and the international situation has become increasingly tense. Only both sides are afraid of destroying the 65.438+0.3 billion-65.438+0.6 billion tons of nuclear weapons that have been dug up in the world (equivalent to the power of 65.438+0 million atomic bombs used in Hiroshima), and no one dares to start the "nuclear button" and launch a nuclear war. 199 1 After the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact, the 40-year-long "cold war" between the United States and the Soviet Union ended. After the end of this "cold war", the international situation tends to ease. However, imperialism and hegemonism are trying to create a new cold war against China and third world countries. This is worthy of vigilance and preparedness.
Many observers today believe that many actions of the United States in the Cold War violated its Constitution and national ideals (such as launching an undeclared war without the authorization of Congress). Political or military leaders in the United States often excuse such behavior on the grounds that national security is threatened. People in many parts of the world think that they have been humiliated by two superpowers. For example, the anti-Americanism in Afghanistan mainly comes from the improper actions taken by the United States to deter the Soviet Union from invading Afghanistan during the Cold War.
In the late Cold War, historians began to seek solutions to post-revisionism. By the end of the cold war, this school had gained the upper hand. This school of historians does not think that either of the two superpowers should be fully responsible for the cold war, but that both sides should be responsible for the cold war because of their misunderstandings and reactions. Post-revisionist scholars follow the realistic view of international relations and believe that American policies in Europe, such as the aid to Greece from 65438 to 0947 and the Marshall Plan, are necessary.
According to this view, the "* * * proletarian movement" is not the root of the dilemma in Western Europe. On the contrary, the total economic and political war and the social structure of Europe are the fundamental reasons. Marshall Plan rebuilt a good European economic system, thus reducing the attraction of the ultra-left forces in Western Europe. For Europe, economic aid ended the shortage of funds and stimulated investment in post-war reconstruction. For the United States, the plan solved the problem of overproduction and increased American exports. NATO brought western European countries into the same defense system, thus avoiding the expansion of capitalism. The post-revisionist school does not think that productism is expansionary and attempts to overthrow the "free world", but at the same time, they think that American policy in Europe is necessary to ensure the stability of Europe, so as to avoid the power tilting towards the Soviet Union and ultimately endangering the western economic and political system.
Nixon doctrine
President Nixon's new foreign policy of reducing American global obligations and adjusting international relations. In the mid-1960s, the cold war between the United States and the Soviet Union intensified, the strength of the second world increased, especially the rise of the third world, the United States plunged into the Vietnam War, various domestic crises advanced, and Nixon Doctrine came into being. 1967 10, Nixon published an article "Asia after Vietnam War" in Diplomatic Quarterly, expressing the budding proposition of this doctrine. 1On July 25th, 969, he visited Asia, passing through Guam, and announced his new policy towards Asia. Mainly after the Vietnam War, the United States will still play an important role and abide by its treaty obligations. But unless threatened by nuclear forces, the United States will encourage its Asian allies to take responsibility for domestic security and military defense, and at the same time, the United States will avoid being involved in Vietnam-style wars. Collective security is a goal pursued by the United States to support its allies in dealing with threats from domestic or nuclear powers. This Asian policy is called "Guamanism". Later, in his State of the Union address over the years, Nixon expanded this policy into a global policy and a general policy to deal with all-round relations with allies. In 1970, he attributed this theory to the "partnership" between the United States and its global allies (including military, political and economic aspects); And pointed out that its central point is that the United States will no longer assume the full responsibility of defending free countries in the world. 197 1 and 1973, Nixon announced that this doctrine represents the basic position of the United States towards the world and is the center of American policy towards major global allies. In a narrow sense, this theory is limited to the United States adjusting its overseas obligations and its relations with its allies; In a broad sense, it also includes the general policy of Sino-Soviet policy, that is, "strength" plus "negotiation". Nixon put forward a "new peace strategy" with "partnership, strength and negotiation" as the three pillars in his State of the Union address 1970, and pointed out that the latter two points are two aspects of the state's policy towards the * * * production party. In his later policy statements, he used this "new strategy" interchangeably with "Nixon Doctrine". Some senior officials directly refer to the "three pillars" as "Nixon Doctrine". This principle is the guide of Nixon administration's multipolar balance of power diplomacy. During his term of office, the US military withdrew from the battlefield in Vietnam, improved Sino-US relations, shifted its strategic focus to the Soviet Union, and adjusted the international status of the United States. It was a major adjustment of American foreign policy after the war, which marked the end of the Cold War and containment policy from Truman Doctrine and became the starting point of foreign policy of successive governments.
Truman Doctrine
1March 947 12, the United States put forward "Truman Doctrine".
After the Second World War, Germany, Italy and Japan were completely defeated, and the strength of Britain and France was also seriously weakened. Only the United States has achieved a dominant position in the capitalist world by virtue of its economic and military strength developed in the war. On February 2 1947, Britain sent a note to the State Council, claiming that due to domestic economic difficulties, Britain could no longer provide economic and military assistance to Greece and Turkey after March 3 1 and hoped that the United States would continue to provide assistance. On March 1947 and 12, US President Truman read out the State of the Union address which was later called "Truman Doctrine" and made a speech hostile to socialist countries. After debate, the two houses of Congress passed the aid bills for Greece and Turkey on April 22nd and May 8th respectively. The US Congress allocated $400 million to the Greek and Turkish governments to help them suppress the people's revolutionary movement. "Truman Doctrine" is synonymous with interference in other countries' internal affairs, and its proposal marks the official beginning of the "Cold War" between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Truman Doctrine
This is President Harry Truman's speech to the National Assembly on March 1947 12. This article clarifies the direct background of the speech. The idea that the United States supports free countries to resist "totalitarian regimes" is generally regarded as a new drastic change in American foreign policy, and its influence on the whole world is equivalent to 1823' s announcement that the western hemisphere is no longer dominated by European colonialism. The Soviet Union regarded Truman Doctrine as an open threat from the United States to Soviet-controlled areas and Soviet-Russian expansion.