France:1Late 8th century

Overview of bourgeois revolution

17 and 18 centuries, world history inherited the great turning point and great change of the previous period and developed in a deeper and broader direction. In Europe and North America, the foundation of feudalism was attacked, and the era of bourgeois revolution came. After the Dutch revolution, the bourgeois revolution broke out in Britain, which opened the way for the establishment of the capitalist system. Major feudal countries in continental Europe also carried out reforms in succession, carrying out the policy of enriching the people in Qiang Bing, which objectively promoted the development of capitalism. During this period, European countries further accelerated the pace of colonial expansion. After fierce struggle, Britain finally became the largest colonial country in the world. In the wave of social change, the Enlightenment appeared in the field of European political thought, which provided a set of political ideas for capitalist society. The Great Revolution broke out in France, which destroyed the feudal autocratic rule and opened the way for the bourgeoisie to seize power. In the British North American colonies, the emerging United States was established.

Western bourgeois revolution

I./kloc-Britain in the early 7th century

After the opening of the new air route, the main trade routes and trade centers in Europe moved from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic coast. The British took advantage of the favorable geographical position to expand foreign trade and carry out colonial plunder. During this period, workshops and handicrafts, such as wool spinning, developed greatly, and pastures and farms with capitalist management methods appeared. A new bourgeoisie composed of workshop owners, businessmen, bankers and farmers has grown up. Some nobles, while retaining this title, are also engaged in some capitalist economic activities. They are called new noble.

/kloc-in the 0 th and 7 th centuries, the king of England vigorously promoted feudal autocracy and advocated "divine right of monarchy", believing that the power of the king was given by God and could not be disobeyed. The rights of the bourgeoisie and new noble were violated, and they used parliament against the king.

Second, Charles I was killed by the guillotine.

1640, king Charles I of England called a meeting of parliament, hoping to raise military expenses and suppress the Scottish uprising. During the meeting, members of parliament lashed out at the king's arbitrary power and demanded that the king's power be restricted, which opened the prelude to the British bourgeois revolution. Charles I was so angry that he sent troops to arrest parliamentarians who opposed him and launched a civil war. A few years later, after repeated struggles, the parliamentary army led by Cromwell defeated the king's army and won the final victory. 1649, Charles I was guillotined, and the Republic of China was established in Britain.

The Bill of Rights marks the victory of the British bourgeois revolution.

1688 10 Ports, docks and main streets in major Dutch cities are covered with colorful propaganda materials exposing the reactionary rule of King Zhan Mu XII and the declaration of Prince Willem van Oranje, as long as they can attract attention. This is considered to be the first large-scale propaganda offensive in the world, and it is being fully launched here.

After Cromwell's death in September 1658, his son richard cromwell succeeded lord protector. Richard is neither a battle-hardened war general nor a political veteran who is good at manipulating politics. He has only been in office for eight months, that is, he resigned as a protector under the pressure of the military group. The government that defended the country collapsed. Since then, the political situation has been in chaos. The bourgeoisie and the land aristocracy are eager to reach an understanding with the old forces in order to maintain order and protect vested interests. This paved the way for the restoration of Stuart dynasty.

/kloc-at the beginning of 0/660, the monarchist and Scottish garrison commander Monk, who was hidden in the revolutionary ranks, led the army into London. He assembled Presbyterian Church and royalists to form a "new parliament" and passed a resolution demanding that charles ii, the eldest son of Charles I in exile, return home quickly. On April 4th, charles ii issued a declaration in Brayda, the Netherlands, claiming that after the restoration, he would guarantee the land and property relations clearly established during the revolution, allow freedom of belief, and guarantee pardon for those who opposed the dynasty. On May 1 day of the same year, the British Parliament officially declared charles ii as the King of England. In late May, charles ii led a group of outlaws aboard a British warship and returned to China from the Netherlands to reign.

The restoration of Stuart dynasty was a response to the British bourgeois revolution. After charles ii ascended the throne, he turned his back on the Brayda Declaration and rebelled. It was declared that any "kingslayer" who participated in the trial of his father Charles I could not be pardoned and must be severely punished. Suddenly, white terror enveloped the whole of Britain. 16165438+1October 30th, the restorer dug up the grave in Westminster Abbey in London, dug up the bodies of Cromwell and Elton, put them on the gallows, dragged them across the street, put on shackles and hung them on the gallows for public display. Charles ii also declared Anrigan as the state religion, and at the same time formulated a series of religious laws to persecute non-Christians.

After charles ii's death, his younger brother Zhan Mu succeeded to the throne. As soon as he took office, he publicly declared that he believed in Catholicism and released a large number of imprisoned Catholics to serve in the army. Later, the Declaration on Freedom of Belief was promulgated, and laws restricting Catholicism were abolished in an attempt to turn Catholicism into a state religion.

The perversion of the restoration of the Stuart dynasty not only aroused the opposition of the British people, but also triggered a large-scale uprising of farmers and craftsmen, and also aroused strong dissatisfaction from the bourgeoisie and land nobles. However, at this time, the British bourgeoisie no longer dared to rely on the people and did not use revolutionary means to fight. They plan to wait until the old childless king dies, that is, invite his eldest daughter, Protestant Mary, and her husband, William, who is in power in the Netherlands, to be king in England. But by 1688, the situation suddenly changed. James II's second wife, Archbishop Madeleine Marie, gave birth to a son, which means that Britain will continue to be ruled by Catholics.

Therefore, the British bourgeoisie and the land aristocracy decided to appeal to William immediately, demanding that he intervene by force and overthrow the restoration of Stuart dynasty in the form of a coup. On June 30th, according to a private agreement, they formally sent an invitation letter to William, asking him to come to Britain quickly to protect people's "freedom". William, Prince of Orange, immediately agreed to the invitation, and issued a declaration on June 10, expressing deep sympathy for the sufferings of the British people, announcing that the main purpose of his visit to Britain was to protect "Protestantism, freedom, property and a free parliament". The Dutch parliament also strongly supported this, not only allocated huge sums of money for military expenditure, but also launched a large-scale propaganda offensive, so the scene at the beginning of this article appeared.

1688165438+1October, William led 12000 soldiers and a huge fleet of 600 ships landed in Britain. Late at night on 23rd, the traitor James II fled to France under the cover of darkness, and the Stuart Dynasty was restored and destroyed.

After James II fled, William immediately called a meeting of members of the British House of Lords, the last three members of the House of Commons during the charles ii period and members of the London City Council. At the joint meeting, William was appointed as the temporary head of state of Britain, and was authorized to convene "kuyt"-that is, the parliament that was not convened by the king to discuss state affairs.

1689 At the beginning of this year, "Kuventer" opened in London. When discussing the issue of succession to the throne, the attitude of the British dignitaries changed dramatically. They did not want William to succeed to the throne. They even proposed to make James II king in name only. William served as regent or handed the throne to Mary, and William ruled England in the name of his wife. William was very angry at the cowardice and treachery of the British bourgeoisie. He said that he would never be a temporary agent for his father-in-law or a minister to his wife, and threatened that if he didn't give him five, he would immediately lead his army back to the Netherlands and never interfere in British affairs again.

The British bourgeoisie was afraid of repeating the Great Revolution forty years ago and succumbed to William's tough attitude. On February 9th of the same year, "Kuventer" passed a resolution announcing James II's abdication, and William and Mary were the king and queen of England. As joint monarchs with equal rights, they jointly rule Britain. 13 In February, William and Mary held a grand coronation ceremony and formally acceded to the throne.

In order to ensure that the state power can protect the interests of the bourgeoisie and limit the unlimited sovereign power within the scope of the Constitution, on the same day when William and Mary were crowned, Kuvant adopted the Declaration of Rights and promulgated the Bill of Rights in June+10, 5438. It is stipulated that the king of England must be a believer in the future and abolish the power of the king to suspend the law. Without the consent of congress, the king has no right to tax; In peacetime, the king has no right to recruit and maintain a standing army without the consent of Congress; Parliamentary elections must be free and subjects have the right to petition the king; Members' speeches in parliament are not impeached and questioned by any organ outside the parliament, and the king must often convene parliamentary meetings. In this regard, William said that he will faithfully abide by it.

170 1 year, the British parliament further passed the law of succession to the throne, which stipulated that the king had no right to decide the issue of succession to the throne and made a series of restrictions on succession to the throne. It stipulated that if William died childless, the throne should be inherited by Anna, a young daughter loyal to Protestantism and James II. If Anna has no children, then the throne will belong to Hanover.

The Bill of Rights and the Law of Succession to the Throne established the basic principles of British constitutional monarchy and ruled out the possibility of Catholics inheriting the British throne. It stipulated the rights of Congress and the authority of the king. Although the form of the king was retained, the power of the king was restricted by legislative means. This political form is called "constitutional monarchy" in history. Because overthrowing the Restoration Dynasty was a bloodless palace coup without people's participation, it was called "glorious revolution" by bourgeois historians.

French Revolution

I. Conquering the Bastille

1. Theory of bourgeois enlightenment thinkers:18th century, under the situation of increasingly decadent feudal autocracy and hierarchy in France, enlightenment thinkers Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau appeared. They exposed and criticized the corruption of the old system and put forward the slogans of "freedom" and "equality". They opposed feudal autocracy and advocated freedom of life; Oppose the feudal hierarchy and demand political equality; They also strongly opposed the Catholic Church, the spiritual pillar of feudalism. Their theory inspired people to oppose the feudal traditional thought and religious bondage, mobilized their thought of serving the bourgeois revolution, and carried it through.

2. The composition of three levels and the rights of each level: French social priests and nobles before the Great Revolution belong to the first and second levels. Their number accounts for less than 5% of the national population, but they occupy 35% of the country's land and do not bear any tax obligations. They are in high positions and lead a parasitic life, forming a privileged ruling class. King Louis XVI of France is their chief political representative. The bourgeoisie, the broad masses of peasants, factory workers, craftsmen and other lower-class poor constitute the third class, that is, the ruled class. The bourgeoisie gets rich by industry and commerce. Although it is rich economically, it has no political right. With the development of capitalism, they demand power and develop capitalism. Handicraft workers and workshop workers are oppressed and discriminated by the privileged class. They work more than 10 hours a day, and their income can't stand the blow of exorbitant taxes and fees and soaring prices. Their lives are embarrassing. The nobles laughed at them for not wearing a pair of trousers and called them "men without trousers". In the third level, farmers have the largest number and suffer the most. Although the situation of each stratum in the third class is different, they all oppose feudalism and privileged class and demand revolution. At that time, a pamphlet "What is the Third Grade" was circulated among French people, which also combined the same purpose. The bourgeoisie acts as the leader of the revolution and the working people are the main force of the revolution.

Guide students to get the object of revolution, the leading class of revolution and the main force of revolution according to the composition and rights of the three levels. It is pointed out that the first level is the divine right of the priest. The second class aristocrat-holds the political power. The third class bourgeoisie-farmers, workers, craftsmen and the lower class poor-is responsible for paying the money. Grade one and grade two are the targets of the revolution. Because the bourgeoisie represents advanced productive forces, it has great power in the third level and becomes the leading class of the revolution. The people are the main force of the revolution.

3. Convening of the Third-level Meeting: In order to solve the financial difficulties, Louis XVI held the Third-level Meeting at the Palace of Versailles on May 5, 1989, which was suspended for 175. On the opening day of the conference on May 5, priests and nobles entered the conference hall from the gate wearing gorgeous clothes embroidered with gold and silver, while representatives of the third grade could only enter the conference hall from the narrow side door wearing black clothes. The bourgeoisie hopes to carve up political power through three-level meetings. Farmers, workers and the poor are eager to improve their lives. At the meeting, the king only asked the delegates to help solve the financial problem and kept silent on the reform, which made people very disappointed. The third class opposes the privileged class. Why do the three-level representatives dare to persist in the struggle? It can be seen that the third-level meeting has become the focus of attention in France. The French people are enthusiastic, full of revolutionary enthusiasm and firmly support the third grade. On the surface, the king gave in, but in fact, the court was prepared to suppress the three-level resistance. The troops gathered near Paris, and the news came out, and the people of Paris were very angry. What shall we do? The people spontaneously armed themselves to resist.

You can supplement the left and right sources and expand your knowledge. When a three-level meeting is held, the third level sits on the left and is called left, while the first and second levels sit on the right and are called right.

4. Capture the Bastille: The Bastille was built in 1382, located in the southeast of Paris. At first it was a military fortress, and later it became a prison where the king held political prisoners. There are many sad stories circulating in this huge and terrible building. One of the stories is about a mysterious prisoner, the Iron Curtain. He was imprisoned by Louis XIV. He spent his whole life in prison, during which he was not allowed to talk to anyone, and even covered his face with an iron curtain. The Bastille is a symbol of feudal autocracy and has long been hated by the people. The prison consists of a thick wall and eight towers. There are two deep-water trenches around the fort, 25 meters wide. You must go through the suspension bridge to enter, and there is a strong guard force in the so-called "Defense Command". When the revolutionary masses in Paris actively fought against feudalism, the cannon on the top of the prison threatened the nearby workers' area. On July 14, thousands of people shouted the slogan "Go to the Bastille" and rushed to the Bastille. Thousands of people surrounded the Bastille. Some people dragged cannons to shell the Bastille, and some people braved the bullets to cut the chain of the suspension bridge, put it down and continued to rush forward. There was a sea of people and smoke in front of the fort. After four hours of fierce fighting, the feudal fortress was finally conquered. It marked the beginning of the French bourgeois revolution. Later, July of 14 was designated as French National Day.

5. Promulgating the Declaration of Human Rights: When the people struggled against feudal rule with great momentum, the Constitutional Assembly controlled by the big bourgeoisie seized power. They just want to reform the old system and don't want the revolution to go too far. However, the development of the revolutionary situation does not depend on their will. After the people's uprising in Paris, the uprising swept across the country, and major cities in France revolted one after another. As the basic force of the revolution, farmers all over the country also actively participated in the revolution. They rushed into the landlord's manor, found the feudal title deed and burned it in public. Driven by the people's revolution, the Constituent Assembly was forced to attack the feudal system. They only use small concessions to win over farmers and retain land ownership. The big bourgeoisie does not allow the peasants to be completely liberated.

The Constituent Assembly also adopted the Declaration of Human Rights. The Declaration of Human Rights is an important document in the history of the French revolution. It declared that "all men are born free and have equal rights"; Freedom of speech, assembly, publication, life and resistance to oppression are "natural" and inalienable rights; National sovereignty belongs to the people. The "Declaration of Human Rights" embodies the requirements put forward by the enlightenment thinkers, and is of progressive significance compared with the autocratic and hierarchical system of feudal rule at that time. At the same time, the Declaration of Human Rights clearly guarantees the inviolability of private property, which embodies its class nature.

The declaration that "all men are born free and have equal rights" embodies the requirements of opposing feudal autocracy and hierarchical system, conforms to the interests of the broad masses of working people under the historical conditions at that time, and has progressive significance. But it also claims that "private property is sacred and inviolable", which fundamentally changes the so-called "human rights" advocated by the bourgeoisie into safeguarding capitalist private rights and safeguarding the rights of a few people to exploit the majority, which has class limitations.

Second, Louis XVI went to the guillotine.

1. The First Republic of France was founded:1September 2, 7921day, the newly elected parliament, the National Assembly, opened, and it immediately became the highest leading organ of the country. The National Assembly passed a bill to abolish the monarchy and declared the establishment of the French Republic, known as the first French Republic in history. The National Assembly passed a bill to abolish the monarchy and declared the establishment of the French Republic, known as the first French Republic in history. At this time, gironde, representing the interests of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie, was in power. Because its representatives are mostly from gironde County, it is called gironde. At that time, there was a serious factional struggle within the League of Nations. There are mainly Gironde and jacobins, and there are frequent struggles between them, especially how to deal with the king. After jacobins's struggle, Louis XVI was guillotined in 1793. But when dealing with Louis XVI, gironde wanted to stop the revolution, which showed that it had become an obstacle to the revolution and could not continue to lead the revolution. It must give way to a more radical faction-jacobins.

2. Jacob's dictatorship:

(1) The Third Uprising of Paris People (1793.5.5338+0)

In the later period of gironde's rule, the French Revolution was beset with crises. What's its performance? At that time, there was an anti-French alliance attack outside, and the army was besieged on all sides; There is a royalist riot inside; At the same time, due to the hoarding of merchants, soaring prices and food shortage, the life of domestic people is very difficult. In this case, gironde refused to limit the price and punish the profiteers. The revolution is in danger again.

On May 3 1793, the people of Paris launched an armed uprising again. This is the third armed uprising in the French Revolution. It can be seen that the French people always stand up at the critical moment of the revolution and show great revolutionary enthusiasm. In this uprising, the masses surrounded the National Association, overthrew gironde, and put jacobins in a dominant position. The people of Paris once again saved and promoted the revolution.

(2) Revolutionary measures of jacobins dictatorship.

Jacobins represents the interests of bourgeois democrats. The important organ of jacobins dictatorship is the Public Security Committee, and robespierre, the main leader of jacobins, holds the real power. The French Revolution is closely related to the name of robespierre. He was the representative of the revolutionary democrats in the French Revolution, the leader of jacobins and an excellent bourgeois revolutionary. The enemy attacked him as a "tyrant" and an "evil tiger", but the people liked him and understood him. According to the description of his contemporaries, robespierre was of medium height, thin and looked very weak. He has a strong revolutionary enthusiasm and shows amazing tireless spirit in his work. He is honest and has no interest in property. Even the enemy had to admit that robespierre was "an honest man". Jacobins, led by him, came to power at a critical moment when the situation at home and abroad was very tense. They know that the enemy must rely on the present people to maintain the fruits of the revolution. To this end, they have taken a series of revolutionary measures. Jacobins promulgated the land law, confiscated the land of the fugitive aristocrats and sold it to farmers at a low price. The problem of farmers' land was not solved during the rule of the big bourgeoisie. During gironde's reign, farmers still didn't get land. Jacobins basically solved the problem of farmers' land and destroyed the feudal land ownership, which was the economic basis of the French feudal system. This is the thoroughness of the French revolution and the main symbol of the completion of the bourgeois revolution.

Faced with the situation of food shortage and soaring prices, jacobins promulgated the price limit law, thus stabilizing people's lives. At that time, the revolutionary situation was very grim, and some cities such as Paris launched ten counter-revolutionary terrorist activities. Death of marat Mara, a lawyer and a journalist, is one of the representatives of the French radical bourgeoisie. During the revolution, he founded the newspaper Friends of the People, which became the mouthpiece of supporting radical democratic measures. He was deeply supported by the lower classes and was called "the friend of the people", but he also became a thorn in the side of counter-revolution. Ma Lin suffers from severe eczema and is extremely painful. Only staying in bed or sitting in the bathtub can relieve the pain. When he was exhausted,1July 3, 793, Charlotte, a fanatical supporter of Gironde? Cordé pretended to be a female revolutionary and was met by Mara. During the conversation, she was caught off guard and stabbed Mara with a sharp knife. Mara's friend David, a painter, rushed to the scene after hearing the news and witnessed Mara being stabbed to death in the bathtub. Full of grief and indignation, he recreated death of marat with cool and powerful brushstrokes, exquisite pictures and vivid expressions. In the face of the enemy's crazy attack, the Regulations on Punishing Criminal Suspects was promulgated. After the promulgation, counter-revolutionary enemies were arrested and a number of counter-revolutionaries were executed. Thereby safeguarding the interests of the revolution. Attacking the enemy is the need of the revolution, but it has also been seriously expanded, resulting in a terrible situation.

In order to defend the revolution and crack down on foreign invaders, the National Association issued a general mobilization order on August 23, 793: "From now until all enemies are expelled from the territory of the Republic of China, the people of the whole country will always be in a state of mobilization." "Young people will go to the front to fight, families will make weapons and transport food, women will sew clothes, set up tents and serve in military hospitals, children will tear bandages with shirts, and the elderly will go to the square. The broad masses of the people who have just been liberated from the oppression of the feudal system have shown unparalleled patriotic enthusiasm, hot pillow, heroic revolutionary spirit and self-sacrifice spirit. They responded to the call and quickly formed an army of 420,000 people to go to the front and fight bravely. The war situation is changing rapidly. By the end of July, all foreign intervention troops had been driven out of the country, and only the royalist riots had been quelled.

In a word, jacobins's revolutionary measures inspired people's revolutionary enthusiasm, strengthened jacobins's revolutionary forces, saved France, completely completed the French Revolution and pushed it to a climax.

France was saved, but jacobins was divided.

(3) hot month coup (1794.7.27)

Robespierre suppressed both the left and right factions, weakened the foundation of dictatorship and made the hot moon coup successful. The time of the coup was1July 27, 794, that is, * * *, the calendar hot month 9; Results: robespierre, Hehe and his cronies and assistants were pushed to the guillotine; Symbol: jacobins's dictatorship was overthrown and the French Revolution ended. The end of the Great Revolution does not mean the failure of the bourgeois revolution, because its revolutionary measures have cleared the way for the development of French capitalism.

Third, the Napoleonic Empire.

1799 In the second half of the year, the rule of the French bourgeoisie was in jeopardy, and the chaebol, who were the lifeblood of the French economy, were determined to establish a powerful military dictator to clean up the mess in France. In this case, Napoleon launched a coup on1799165438+10, and then established an empire.

1. Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor: after Napoleon came to power, he proclaimed himself emperor in 1804 and established the first empire of France. But the empire is not a feudal monarchy, Napoleon is not a feudal emperor, and the bourgeois emperor is for the bourgeoisie. This can be illustrated by his domestic and foreign policies. Napoleon formulated and promulgated the code, fixed the revolutionary achievements of the bourgeoisie in the form of law, and adopted a series of measures to promote the development of capitalism. Foreign countries protected the achievements of the French Revolution through war, and at the same time met the demands of the bourgeoisie for foreign aggression and plunder, expanding the market and dominating Europe.

2. The nature and function of Napoleon's foreign wars: Napoleon launched a series of foreign wars, annexed a large area of European land, and several countries became French vassals. France's foreign war has a progressive side: it objectively played a role in defending the achievements of the French bourgeois revolution and preventing the restoration of Bourbon; At the same time, it also promoted the development of capitalism in feudal monarchies in Europe and shook the feudal ruling order in these countries. With the increasing prosperity of France and the gradual reduction of the threat of European feudal reactionary forces to France, Napoleon's ambition to rule Europe and dominate the world is growing, and the unjust and aggressive side of France's foreign war has taken the lead. 1808, the French army invaded Spain, and the French army pointed to the messy body and there was blood everywhere. The rebels are angry with each other, and the old man hides his face. Faced with the atrocities of the French army, the Spanish people and the oppressed nations in Europe rose up against Napoleon's rule, and the collapse of Napoleon's empire was inevitable. 18 12 Napoleon launched a war against Russia again, which failed and accelerated the collapse of the empire.

We can illustrate the nature and function of Napoleon's foreign war with the pictures of European and French troops shooting the citizens of Madrid, Spain, at the height of the first French Empire. Napoleon's foreign war originally had the nature of defending the achievements of the French Revolution and opposing the feudal restoration. However, with the continuous expansion of the war, nabil's ambition to rule Europe is growing, and the injustice and aggression of the war have become the main aspects.

Napoleon's foreign war shattered the plot of the European anti-French alliance to restore the Bourbon dynasty and played a progressive role. However, it should be noted that his foreign wars also brought great disasters to the invaded countries, aroused the anti-French struggle and the national liberation war against Napoleon's empire, and played an important role in eventually overthrowing Napoleon's rule.

3. 18 14 the French empire ended and the bourbon dynasty was restored: the news of the French army's fiasco in the Russian battlefield spread, and the European "anti-French alliance" countries took the opportunity to unite, rectify the million-strong army and attack France on a large scale. In countries and regions invaded by France, powerful anti-French national movements are also on the rise. 18 13 years, at the battle of Leipzig, the French army was defeated again, and Napoleon was attacked on all sides. 18 14 years, the anti-French allied forces took advantage of the situation to enter Paris, and Napoleon, who was unable to fight any more, was forced to abdicate. The first empire of France perished. Under the protection of foreign troops, Louis Stanislas Xavier of Bourbon Dynasty triumphantly returned to Paris in a "foreign carriage". The French people were enslaved by the Bourbon dynasty again.

Summary: This lesson introduces the magnificent French Revolution and the consolidation of the revolutionary achievements by Napoleon Empire. The restoration of the feudal dynasty once again tells us that the road of social development is tortuous and continuous. The establishment of a new social system often requires repeated struggles.