What are the characteristics of knowledge?
1. As a form, "knowledge" does not have substance. It must rely on a certain carrier as a condition for existence. What knowledge manifests is the expression that reflects certain thoughts and emotions. Knowledge, as a form, is the external objective expression of the crystallization of the human mind. Therefore, it must use the dual carrier of the material material of the human brain and the material material on which external expression is realized to exist.
2. "Knowledge" as a form has the characteristics of eternity in time. Once "knowledge" is produced, it presents an objective state that can be perceived by people. After that, whether it uses various physical materials as a medium to support its existence, or it is abstractly transformed into images and stored. In the memory of the brain, in terms of the formal characteristics of knowledge, it has a character that will never wear out.
3. "Knowledge" as a form is determined by its materiality. It can reproduce or copy itself infinitely in space. Human beings can copy the same structure and form without being restricted by region, country, or specific material materials. At the same time, using different carriers, there is no limit on quantity, and they do not affect each other.
What are the characteristics of knowledge?
Through the joint efforts of domestic and foreign scholars, many knowledge representation methods have been studied in depth, and more knowledge representation methods are currently used. Mainly include: predicate logic representation, production representation, framework representation, semantic network representation, object-oriented representation, ontology-based knowledge representation, etc.
This article will introduce the characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of these knowledge representation methods, and conduct some analysis and comparison. (1) Word logic representation.
Predicate logic representation refers to various knowledge representation methods based on formal logic (ormalogic), which use logical formulas to describe objects, properties, conditions and relationships. For example, "spaceship is in orbit" can be described as: ( npaceshiporbit) It is one of the earliest and most widely used knowledge representation methods in the field of artificial intelligence. Its fundamental purpose is to symbolize logical arguments in mathematics, and to use mathematical deduction to prove that a new statement is derived from known correct statements, and then it can be concluded that the new statement is also correct.
In this method, the knowledge base can be regarded as a set of logical formulas, and the modification of the knowledge base is to add or delete logical formulas. Using logical methods to represent knowledge, knowledge described in natural language is formally described by introducing predicates and functions, and relevant logical formulas are obtained, which are represented by internal machine codes.
Under the logical method representation, reduction method or other methods can be used for accurate reasoning. Predicate logic representation is based on formal logic and has the following advantages: ① Predicate logic representation has clear and unified regulations on how to construct complex things from simple explanations, and effectively separates knowledge and procedures for processing knowledge. The structure is clear; ② Predicate logic has a close relationship with databases, especially relational databases; first-order predicate logic has a complete logical reasoning algorithm; logical reasoning can ensure the logical consistency of new and old knowledge in the knowledge base and the accuracy of deductive conclusions. Correctness; Logical reasoning, as a formal reasoning method, depends on any specific field and has greater versatility.
However, word logic representation also has the following shortcomings: ① It is difficult to express process and heuristic knowledge; ② Due to the lack of organizational principles, the knowledge base is difficult to manage; ③ Because it is a weak proof process, when facts When the number increases, a combinatorial explosion may occur during the proof process; ④ The separation of the content of the representation and the reasoning process should be carried out according to formal logic, allowing a large amount of information contained to be discarded, which will lengthen the processing process and reduce work efficiency. Predicate logic is suitable for expressing factual knowledge such as the status, attributes, and concepts of things, and the determined causal relationships between things. It cannot express uncertain knowledge, and the reasoning efficiency is very low.
(2) Expression of raw formula rules. Production knowledge representation is one of the commonly used knowledge representation methods.
It is based on the large number of causal relationships between various kinds of knowledge in the memory model of the human brain, expressed in the form of "IFHEN" and production rules. This form of rules captures the behavioral characteristics of human problem-solving and solves problems through the cyclic process of knowledge-action.
A production system consists of three basic parts: a rule base, a comprehensive database and a control mechanism. Production rule representation has very obvious advantages: ① Good naturalness. Production representation uses the "If-THEN" form to express knowledge. This representation is basically consistent with human judgment knowledge, intuitive, natural, and easy to reason. ; ② Except for the overall structure of the system, the way each part interacts, and the representation of rules, there are no specific regulations on other implementation details of the system, which gives designers greater flexibility when developing practical systems. , appropriate implementation technology can be adopted as needed, especially various heuristic knowledge that is meaningful for solving problems can be introduced into the system; ③ The format of representation is fixed, single in form, and the rules are independent of each other, and the entire process is just a prerequisite Match, consequent action.
The information provided by matching is only success and failure. Matching generally has no recursion and no complex calculations, so the system is easy to establish; ④ Since the knowledge in the rule base has the same format, and the global database can be used by all Rule access, so rules can be processed uniformly; ⑤ Good modularity, production rules are the most basic knowledge units in rules, rules can only be contacted through the global database, and cannot call each other, which increases the modularity of the rules. It is conducive to the addition, deletion and modification of knowledge; ⑥ Production representation can represent both definite knowledge units and uncertainty knowledge; it is not only beneficial to represent heuristic knowledge, but also can conveniently represent procedural knowledge; both It can represent domain knowledge and meta-knowledge. However, the production rule representation method also has the following shortcomings: ① Low reasoning efficiency: Since the knowledge in the rule base has a unified format, and the connection between the rules must be through the global database as the medium, the reasoning process is an iterative process The process of “matching—conflict elimination—execution”.
Moreover, in each reasoning cycle, the conditional part of all rules must be continuously searched and pattern matched. In principle, this approach will inevitably reduce the efficiency of reasoning, and as the number of rules increases, With the increase, the shortcomings of low efficiency will become more and more prominent, and even combinatorial explosion problems will occur. ② Unintuitive: The database stores independent rules, and the relationship between them is difficult to view in an intuitive way; ③ Lack of flexibility: the knowledge represented by productions has a certain format, and the rules cannot be directly called , so it is difficult to represent knowledge that has structural relationships or hierarchical relationships, and it cannot provide flexible explanations.
The production method is currently the preferred knowledge representation method for expert systems. The DENDRAL system used to determine molecular structures in the chemical industry, the MYCIN system used to diagnose meningitis and blood viral infections, and the PROSPECTOR system used to estimate mineral deposits are all examples of using this method for knowledge representation and reasoning.
(3) Semantic network representation. Semantic network is one of the most important methods in knowledge representation. It is a knowledge representation method with strong expressive ability and flexibility.
Semantic networks use directed graphs composed of nodes and labeled edges to describe the relationships between events, concepts, situations, actions, and objects. Labeled directed graphs can describe the relationships between objects very naturally.
Semantic networks are widely used due to their natural nature.
What are the basic characteristics of law?
Basic characteristics of law 1. Law is a social norm that adjusts people’s behavior (1) Human behavior is the object of adjustment by law. It can also be said that the object of adjustment by law is social relations. Law adjusts people’s Behavior also adjusts social relations. Behavior as the object of adjustment by law refers to people's external behavior. Marx said: "For the law, apart from my behavior, I do not exist at all. I am not at all." The object of law." (2) Law is a kind of social norm. The normative nature of law is embodied in three aspects: ① The law provides clear instructions on how people should behave. ② The content of the law is general and general. ③ Laws are applied repeatedly. 2. Laws are social norms formulated or recognized by the state. Formulation and recognition are the main ways of legal creation. Formulation refers to the creation of new norms by state agencies through legislative activities. Recognition is the state’s recognition of existing rules of conduct. , giving legal effect. "Recognition" usually has three situations: (1) giving certain social rules that already exist in society, such as habits, experience, morals, religion, customs, and etiquette, so that they have legal effect; (2) passing Recognize international norms by joining international organizations, recognizing or signing international treaties, etc. (3) Specific national organs make general rules or principles for rulings on specific cases, and give such rules or principles legal effect. 3. Legal provisions The social normative law of people's rights and obligations uses rights and obligations as a mechanism to influence people's behavioral motivations, guide people's behavior, and adjust social relations. Rights mean that people can do or not do certain behaviors and You can require others to do or not do certain actions. The law enables people to obtain certain benefits or freedoms by stipulating rights. Obligations mean that people must do or not do certain actions. Obligations include two types of obligations: obligations and omissions. The former requires people to do The latter requires people not to perform certain behaviors, such as the obligation not to misappropriate registered trademarks of others. It is precisely because the law regulates people's behavior by stipulating rights and obligations, so people's legal obligations Status is reflected in a series of legal rights and obligations. 4. Law is a social norm guaranteed to be implemented by the state’s coercive force. Any social norm is mandatory and has social power to ensure its implementation. However, the coercion of different social norms The nature, scope, level and method are different. The coerciveness of law is different from other social norms in that law has state coercion. Law is backed by state coercion and is supported by state coercion. The state's mandatory state guarantees the implementation of laws, which manifests itself in the state's denial and sanction of illegal acts and the state's affirmation and protection of legal acts; it manifests itself in the exercise of power by state agencies in accordance with the law and in the fact that citizens can make requests in accordance with the law. The state protects its legal rights. 2. The nature of law (1) Discussion on the nature of law in the history of law 1. Divine will theory. Attributes law to the will of God. 2. Rational theory. Interprets law as human reason and human nature, among which Law is often explained as the embodiment of human will. (2) Marxist assertions about the nature of law 1. Law is the embodiment of the will of the ruling class. Law is the embodiment of the will of the ruling class that is regarded as law. Only the ruling class Only by enacting laws through state agencies can the will of this class be expressed as the will of the state, forcing all members of society to abide by it unanimously. 2. The law is the embodiment of the national will of the ruling class. The law is different from other ideologies that embody the will of the ruling class. The will of the ruling class elevated to the will of the state. The state adjusts social relations through laws, brings people's behavior into the track prescribed by the ruling class, guides people to behave in the direction prescribed by the ruling class, and operates within the scope of law and order, so that society Develop in a direction that conforms to the interests and will of the ruling class. 3. The content of the law is determined by the material living conditions of a specific society. The material living conditions of the ruling class are multifaceted, such as geographical environment, population, etc., but their determination What matters is the material production mode of society, that is, the unity of productive forces and production relations. It determines the essential content and development direction of law.
What aspects does knowledge include?
Knowledge What exactly knowledge is is still controversial. Our country's definition of knowledge is generally made from a philosophical perspective. For example, the "knowledge" entry in "Chinese Encyclopedia·Education" states: "The so-called knowledge, in terms of the content it reflects, is the attribute of objective things. The reflection of the relationship is the subjective image of the objective world in the human brain.
As for its form of reflection activity, it sometimes appears as the subject's perceptual perception or representation of things, which belongs to perceptual knowledge; sometimes it appears as concepts or laws about things, which belongs to rational knowledge. "From this definition, we can see that knowledge is the product of the unity of subject and object. It comes from the external world, so knowledge is objective; but knowledge itself is not objective reality, but the characteristics and connections of things in the human brain. The reflection in is a subjective representation of objective things. Knowledge is generated through the reflection activities of the human brain on the basis of the interaction between subject and object. Knowledge is the only source of the love and principles of human freedom.
The above definition provides a philosophical basis for our discussion of the connotation of knowledge. However, the understanding of macroscopic philosophical reflection needs to be concreted from the perspective of individual cognition, so that it can be effectively used to guide specific teaching in schools.
Different from philosophy, cognitive psychology studies knowledge from the perspective of the source of knowledge, the production process and representation form of individual knowledge. For example, Piaget believed that experience (that is, knowledge) comes from individuals. This experience of interaction with the environment can be divided into two categories: one is physical experience, which comes from the external world and is the understanding of objective things and their connections obtained by individuals acting on objects; the other is logic-mathematics Experience, which comes from the subject's actions, is the result of the individual's understanding of the coordination between actions. For example, children gain experience about the conservation of quantity by playing with objects, and students gain knowledge about mathematical principles through mathematical reasoning. The definition is expressed from the production process of individual knowledge. Bloom believes in "Taxonomy of Educational Objectives" that knowledge is "the recollection of specific things and universal principles, the recollection of methods and processes, or the recollection of a pattern, "Recollection of structure or framework", which is said from the perspective of the content contained in knowledge, is a description of the phenomenon.
We believe that when understanding the meaning of knowledge, it is necessary to regard it as a human society* **Distinguish between knowledge of wealth and knowledge in an individual's mind. Knowledge in human society exists objectively, but knowledge in an individual's mind is not the objective reality itself, but a subjective representation of the individual, that is, the human brain. The knowledge structure in it includes not only feelings, perceptions, representations, etc., but also concepts, propositions, and schemas. They respectively mark the different breadth and depth of individual responses to objective things, which are formed through individual cognitive activities. Generally speaking, individual knowledge is stored in the brain in the form of hierarchical network structures (cognitive structures) from concrete to abstract. Philosophy mainly studies the nature of different knowledge in human society, and psychology mainly studies it. Study the nature of individual knowledge.
Quotations about knowledge
Bacon: Knowledge is power
Gorky: Take care of books, they are the source of knowledge. /p>
Northcote: A learned man is a reservoir of knowledge, not a source.
Without the light of knowledge, the mind will be shrouded in darkness.
Flex: A university is an institution that consciously devotes itself to the pursuit of knowledge, strives to solve problems, critically evaluates people's achievements, and educates people at a truly high level.
Chesterfield: When we enter old age, knowledge will be our comfortable and necessary retreat; if we do not plant the tree of knowledge when we are young, we will have no place to enjoy the shade when we are old. .
Zhu Xi of the Song Dynasty: What is urgent is that it is difficult to know without seeking; practice what you know and do not be afraid of doing what is difficult.
Ying Ralph: The wisdom of a wise man is an unusual common sense
Chesterfield: Reading can gain knowledge; but more useful knowledge is the understanding of the world. It can only be obtained by studying a wide variety of people.
Cy Johnson: The thirst for knowledge is a natural human tendency, and any sane person will do whatever it takes to acquire knowledge.
Engels: Complex labor involves the application of skills and knowledge that require more or less effort, time and money to acquire.
Custer: The manager does not bear the task of creating knowledge, his task is to use knowledge effectively.
·Riggs: A manager's management ability is a function of his quality, knowledge and experience. These three factors interact to form a special management style.
Kolmogorov: Science is the unique wealth of mankind, and the task of a real scientist is to enrich this treasure trove of knowledge that can benefit all mankind.
H. Spencer: Science is systematized knowledge.
Joseph Rue: Science is for those who are diligent and studious, poetry is for those who are knowledgeable.
O. Holmes: Science is the anatomy of ignorance.
Schopenhauer: Extensive thoughts and knowledge without deep experience are like a textbook with only two lines of text per page but forty lines of notes.
Argument: If a person has knowledge, he is powerful.
Practice is the mother of knowledge, and knowledge is the beacon of life.
Einstein: To learn knowledge, you must be good at thinking, thinking, and thinking again.
What are the basic characteristics of management?
(1) Duality of management: Management has duality, one is natural attribute and the other is social attribute.
The natural attribute of management refers to the management process of combining, coordinating and utilizing resources such as people, finances, materials, time, information, etc. It contains many objective factors that are not affected by differences in social systems and social cultures. And the laws and characteristics of change. (2) The scientific nature and artistry of management: The scientific nature of management means that management activities must be based on a scientific basis in order to be effectively managed.
The scientific nature of management activities refers to the behavioral activity process in which managers follow the principles and principles of management in management activities and solve practical problems in management in accordance with the objective laws of management. The artistry of management is the management behavior in which managers skillfully apply management knowledge and adopt different management methods and techniques for different management situations to achieve the expected management results.
(3) The universality and purpose of management: Management exists widely in various human activities, involves every corner of society, and is closely related to people's various social activities and organizational activities. (4) Consistency of management or management personnel tasks: The management process is to design and maintain a system so that people working together in this system can achieve the organization's predetermined goals with as little expenditure as possible.
Section 2: The organizational structure of clinical nursing work.
In the era of knowledge economy, what are the characteristics of knowledge?
The following information comes from kmpro knowledge management
As a management idea in the era of knowledge economy, knowledge management has its own uniqueness in theory.
1. The core of knowledge management is intellectual capital and employees
Intellectual capital includes explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge. Explicit knowledge can be encoded through networks and software systems, and then accessed and shared. Tacit knowledge mainly exists in the employees of the company, who themselves are experts in their fields. The company must create a good learning environment and atmosphere to give full play to their supervisory initiative and carry out creative work.
2. The goal of knowledge management is sharing and innovation
Sharing means “transmitting the most appropriate knowledge to the most appropriate people at the most appropriate time” ”, so that the operation of each business is based on the accumulation of knowledge and experience of the enterprise, while recreating and innovating knowledge. The competition of modern enterprises is mainly the competition of innovation ability. Therefore, in order to gain competitive advantage, enterprises must establish corresponding incentive mechanisms for the sharing of knowledge and innovation, and rely on the creativity of employees to achieve the goals of knowledge management.
3. Knowledge management should be combined with specific businesses
Knowledge management should be based on enterprise business, rather than managing for knowledge management. The structure and application areas of the knowledge system must be suitable for the business itself and oriented to market needs, so that it can have application value and recreate value.
In our country, knowledge management theory has been introduced for many years, has passed the theoretical discussion period, and is entering a comprehensive application period.
Reference: kmpro knowledge management consulting
What are the four major characteristics of the knowledge economy?
From the perspective of production input, the production of creativity mainly relies on the input of knowledge.
In agricultural societies and previous eras, wealth creation relied more on physical strength than mental strength. The number of people was an important indicator of social wealth production capacity. Knowledge investment is very limited.
In the early days of industrial society, although machines replaced many manpower, the role of technical and managerial personnel in production was not fully demonstrated. Most of the work is still manual work, and personal skills and techniques are beginning to be valued.
With the development of technology, the proportion of mental work has increased, and investment in scientific research and education and training has increased. Throughout industrial society, while knowledge has always played a role in the economy, capital investment has been critical to economic growth.
In recent years, the status of knowledge in the economy has continued to rise, becoming the most important production input. This is mainly reflected in the following: investment in research and development has become the most important investment for enterprises, and investment in intangible assets exceeds investment in tangible assets; capital investment must match knowledge investment to avoid risks and obtain profits; economic growth mainly relies on knowledge Investment, the return on investment in intangible assets such as research and development, education and training is much higher than the return on investment in tangible assets such as machinery and equipment.
From the perspective of product production types, human production has gone through two stages, namely the stage centered on the production of hardware products and the stage centered on the production of software products. Hardware products mainly include products from manufacturing, processing industries and other related industries.
The characteristics of its production are: a large proportion of hardware investment, the service industry is underdeveloped, and scientific research and learning have not attracted enough attention. This stage corresponds to the entire early stage of agriculture and industry. Although the production of such products is still going on, the proportion of its output value in the national economy has been greatly reduced.
Software products mainly include general products produced by the service industry and cultural industries related to learning, tourism, entertainment, etc. This stage corresponds to the middle and later stages of industrial society.
Information technology plays an increasingly important role in the production of such products. The development of information technology not only makes the production of software products quickly become the center of the production process, but also promotes the production of creative products to replace it.
This situation can be understood from the following three aspects. First, information technology accelerates industrial stratification.
On the one hand, industries continue to differentiate, and agriculture, industry, and service industries have emerged in a different sense than before. The application of information technology makes these industries contain more information.
This not only means that the production process requires more and more knowledge input, but also means more knowledge production, thus upgrading production to knowledge-based. On the other hand, knowledge industries, especially high-tech and cultural industries, are also rising rapidly and become important economic components.
Second, the knowledge industry is divided into upstream industries, midstream industries and downstream industries. Downstream industries are related to the replication and dissemination of general knowledge and have a relatively close relationship with traditional industries.
Its product production basically belongs to the production of software products, but they are low-level software products. The midstream industry is connected to the software industry, and most software products are produced by it.
This is an industry in which developing countries are expected to compete first. Most of the information industry and service industry fall into this category.
The upstream industry is mainly related to creative production. Creativity can be divided into hard creativity and soft creativity according to its technical tendency and management tendency.
Hard creativity includes high-tech research and development, and its products are mainly patents and major scientific research results. At present, a large part of enterprise investment is in this field.
Soft creativity mainly includes the production of management knowledge. Its products include major business policies, development plans, etc.
It is related to national competitiveness. Third, creative production becomes independent from general production and becomes production parallel to the general production process, and even becomes the center of the production process.
Nowadays, many large companies have begun to devote themselves to the production of new technologies and new products, and leave the general production of products to other producers. For example, Nike Shoe Company is the largest shoe company in the world. This shoe company with an annual output of 16 billion US dollars does not produce shoes at all, but goes all out to develop new products.
They collect a large amount of consumer information from the world for creative production. Then the general production of new products, the creative results formed, is handed over to other companies.
Another example is that some new medicines are produced directly from laboratories and do not need to build corresponding factories. The laboratory is the factory.
2. Distribution characteristics: The degree of knowledge possession becomes the main basis for distribution. The degree of knowledge possession includes the amount of knowledge and the ability to possess it.
From the basis of distribution, traditional distribution is based on the possession of the means of production. In an agricultural society, the means of production mainly include land and labor tools.
Landowners were in a dominant position in distribution because they owned land and labor tools. In an industrial society, funds can purchase the means of production needed for production and are the main basis for distribution.
Capitalists are in a dominant position in participating in distribution because they have funds. With the advancement of technology, knowledge labor plays an increasingly prominent role in wealth production. Economic growth increasingly relies on the production, diffusion and application of knowledge. Knowledge has become the means of production and the most critical factor in production in the traditional sense.
Knowledge workers have changed the traditional employment relationship because they possess knowledge in the sense of means of production. In recent years, the excess of funds and the increase in investment risks have weakened the competitiveness of direct participation in allocation of funds.
The need for surgeons in the operating room is greater than the need of surgeons for the operating room. The real wealth of a hospital is not the expensive equipment, but the skills and knowledge of doctors with decades of experience.
Without this knowledge, a hospital's expensive operating room is worthless. This characteristic of knowledge makes the degree of possession of knowledge the basis for distribution.
From the perspective of distribution decisions, distribution in the past was decided by both labor and management. In an agricultural society, landlords have the initiative in distribution.
Farmers have only limited say. In industrial society, capitalists have the initiative in distribution.
Workers have limited say. With the growth of the blue-collar working class, trade unions have made important contributions in fighting for the right to speak, and have carried out preliminary work for equal participation of both labor and management in distribution.
The emergence of knowledge workers has blurred the distinction between blue-collar and white-collar workers, and blue-collar workers in the traditional sense have gradually declined. Knowledge workers possess the means of production.