? There are two solutions to "review the old and learn the new". One is "review the old and learn the new": review the old and learn the new from it; The second is to "review the past and learn the new": on the one hand, we should review the stories of laws and regulations, on the other hand, we should strive to acquire new knowledge.

Combining these two solutions may be more complete: within your ability, read the classics as widely as possible, think over their meanings repeatedly, and review what you have heard regularly to gain experience and understanding; And strive to absorb new knowledge; In this way, we can expand the field of human knowledge, and closing the door can also give the sages the meaning of the wisdom era. It can be called "reviewing the past and knowing the new", blending the old and the new, and blending the ancient and the present.

Some scholars believe that it is not appropriate to review the past and learn the new, because literally, only absorbing ancient and modern knowledge without understanding experience is like a buyer and seller of knowledge, not a teacher. So let's look at the meaning of "teacher" first. In the Analects of Confucius, the word "teacher" can be found in chapter 14, which has the same meaning as today's teachers. In addition to this chapter, there are three chapters.

[Edit this paragraph] Review the past and learn new sources:

The Analects of Confucius said: "Confucius said: review the past and learn new things, and you can be a teacher."

Translation:

Confucius said: read the classics extensively, review what you have learned, and then gain new insights from them, and strive to absorb new knowledge in order to achieve mastery. At this level, you can call it a teacher.

In the Wei Linggong chapter of this chapter, Confucius said: "Be kind and don't give in to your teacher" (Confucius said: "Even a teacher doesn't have to be modest when talking about what is right). The word "teacher" in this chapter is also explained by "person".

Generally speaking, Confucius said: In a threesome, there must be a teacher. Choose the good and follow it, and change the bad (Confucius said: when several people are together, there must be something I can learn from. I can choose their advantages to learn and use their shortcomings to prevent myself from making the same mistakes.

In Zi Zhangpian, Wei Gongsun asked Zi Gong: How did you learn it? Zi Gong said: the way of civil and military affairs does not fall to the ground, but lies in people. Sages know its greatness, but not wise men know its smallness, so there is a way of being civil and military. Why doesn't master learn? Why do you always have a teacher? (Sun Chao of Weiguo asked Zi Gong: Where did Confucius learn the knowledge? Zi Gong replied: The educational achievements of Zhou Wenwang and King Wu have not been completely lost, but spread all over the world. Talented people can grasp the important part, while ordinary people can grasp the last part. In fact, the educational achievements of King Wen and King Wu are invisible anywhere in the world. So what hasn't my teacher learned? Why do you need a regular teacher?

From these two chapters, even negative examples can be taken as a warning. So in fact, anyone different from himself can be a teacher. How much ancient and modern knowledge can you absorb?

There are two solutions to "being a teacher": one is that such talents can be teachers; Second, only by doing this for yourself can you become a teacher. The former focuses on knowing people, while the latter focuses on self-cultivation. These two explanations have different meanings. Although these two meanings can make this chapter more complete, it may be more appropriate to interpret it with self-cultivation and self-expectation from the perspective of the meaning of "teacher" mentioned above.

[Edit this paragraph] Review the past and learn new meanings.

Zhu's interpretation of Confucius' famous saying "Reviewing the past and learning the new, you can be a teacher" (the Analects of Confucius is a government) has long been regarded as a classic. He said, "Old friend, I've heard a lot. Newcomers get what they got today. If you learn, you can learn old news. If you have something new, you can learn from me. Don't be poor, you can be a teacher. If the husband learns to ask questions, he gains nothing from his heart, but his knowledge is limited. Therefore, learn to remember that he is' not a teacher', just like this. " (Notes on the Analects of Confucius) focuses on the interpretation of pedagogy, and regards "reviewing the past and learning the new" as an important condition for a teacher. In all fairness, Zhu's understanding should be said to be correct, but if that's all, I'm afraid it's not enough. Confucius' speech has its context and pertinence. Confucius' "reviewing the past and learning the new" has methodological significance, which dominates Confucius' attitude towards the whole tradition and all forms of knowledge. He expounded the generality of his epistemology by stating the concrete facts of being a teacher.

[Edit this paragraph] First, what is "reason"

Generally speaking, all historical and realistic cultural structures are "principles" that can be used by future generations. In Confucius, it can be divided into two categories: because Confucius "does not keep his word, but does what he says" (The Analects of Confucius? Therefore, the record of ancient books has become the main part of "antiquity", which is in the form of "antiquity" texts, namely, the written legal system such as History, Shu, Li, Yi and Chunqiu. In this regard, Confucius advocated "erudition in literature". The other is non-verbal form, which mainly refers to the etiquette, customs and other knowledge embodied in social behavior. Confucius' emphasis on what he saw and heard belongs to this category. In Confucius' view, all "principles" may become learning resources. As Zigong said: "The way of literature and the way of martial arts do not fall to the ground, but lies in people. The sage knows its greatness, and the unpretentious knows its smallness, which is called the way of literature and martial arts. Why doesn't master learn? And why do you often have teachers? " ("The Analects? But Confucius, as a thinker and educator, still "narrates" selectively according to his own standards. The choice is "both talk and do". Historical records? Confucius' family said that Confucius "traced the gifts of three generations and made the book spread." For more than 3,000 poems circulated at that time, The Book of Songs was composed of those who "re-acquired the propriety and righteousness". For the sake of his students and later candidates, he took valuable books to learn.

[Edit this paragraph] Second, why does "old" have the value of knowing new things?

The "old" itself will not produce new, because the production of "new" depends on the qualification and situation of the subject. But there must be some quality in "reason" to make the subject "know the new" This quality is the abstract truth embodied in "rationality" and can be transferred to new situations. This abstract truth is what Confucius called "One". Although Confucius' way of speaking is "to be flexible and appropriate, but to be different" (the Analects of Confucius), he has different ways of speaking according to different specific personnel situations, but his "Tao" is the same. He said to Zigong, The Analects of Confucius should be "consistent" D? "Osaka and Wei Linggong also said to Ceng Zi," My Tao is the same "? Although the "one" here is "loyalty and forgiveness" according to Ceng Zi's understanding, it also has a specific meaning, but we are concerned about the way of thinking embodied by Confucius. Zhu pointed out: "Honest people have no interest, and the body of Tao is also the reason why thousands of books are books." "Everything is in its proper place, and Tao is also used. A book is different for different reasons. From this point, we can see the reality of' consistency'. " ! This "one book is different" in The Analects of Confucius shows that although Confucius is talking about all kinds of differences, there is an abstract "one" behind all kinds of differences, that is, there is a basic principle running through all levels of his thought! Tao ",everything he said is based on this principle, and take it as a home. Its basic way of thinking is to use a basic principle to guide all levels of its thinking, which is also the way of thinking commonly used by ancient sages. There is an abstract philosophy (I) that can play a role in the new situation. To put it bluntly, I believe that everything has its commonness, which is the core level of old and new values. In addition, "reason" has another level of value, that is, the previous specific laws and regulations still have their existence value after gains and losses in the new situation. Confucius said: "Yin gains and loses, because it is clear; "The gains and losses of Zhou are also well known; Its successor or successor, though immortal, is also known. " ("The Analects? For politics), he said: "Things call each other, and potential numbers are born. It becomes regular, so it is predictable. "As long as we know the' regularity' of its gains and losses, we can predict the future from' reason'. Therefore, Confucius believes that "reason" has "one" and "constancy", which can make people know new things. There is a more basic assumption behind this, which is the recognition of the universality of human nature. He said, "Sex is similar, but learning is far away" (The Analects of Confucius? Yang Huo "). Human nature is similar, which is the premise of communication and understanding between people, so that future generations can understand their predecessors and their various cultural achievements. This should be the starting point of his epistemology.

[Edit this paragraph] Third, learn new individual differences from old friends.

"Reviewing the past and learning the new" is everyone's ability, which can be explained by the following broad understanding of the relationship between reviewing the past and learning the new. Knowing the new is an individual's use of existing experience when facing new time and space, new speech objects and new events. If a person wants to know new things in front of reality, he must make use of existing experience, that is, he must look back on the past; And any review is a review under the new situation. The change of time and space is inevitable, "the deceased is like a husband, not giving up day and night" ("The Analects of Confucius? Zi Han), so it inevitably contains knowledge. In this sense, "reviewing the past and learning the new" is the truth summary of human understanding. However, different people know what is new and what is new, which is very different. This involves differences in individual conditions. The degree of learning new things by reviewing the past depends on personal conditions. First of all, people are different in talent and qualification. Confucius believes that "only the upper knowledge and the lower stupidity" ("The Analects of Confucius? Yang Huo ")," More people can also use language; People in the following, not in language "("the Analects of Confucius? Yong also "). Secondly, the more important factor is the acquired study. Confucius talked about this point repeatedly. He said that he is "a city with ten rooms, there must be faithful people, so it is better to learn from Qiu" (The Analects of Confucius? Gongye Chang ")," never tire of learning "("The Analects of Confucius? And ")," I am not born to know, good at the ancient, sensitive to also "("The Analects of Confucius? And "), he also praised Yan Hui studious. Zi Gong is answering Confucius' question, "Which is better?" He said, "How dare you turn back? I also know a thing or two. Confucius said, "What a blessing! I am as good as my daughter. " ("The Analects? Gongye Chang) The result of Yan Hui's eagerness to learn is that "you can tell ten things by one smell". There are also differences in value orientation in reviewing the past and learning the new, which is a more important dimension in Confucius' view. Confucius said: "A gentleman has virtue, while a villain loves earth;": The gentleman is pregnant with punishment, and the villain is pregnant with profit "("The Analects of Confucius? Benevolence ")," a gentleman is figurative, a villain is figurative "(The Analects? Establish a person "). Different values have different understandings and actions: "A gentleman is superior and a villain gives orders" (The Analects of Confucius? Xianwen ")" A gentleman has three fears: fear of destiny, fear of adults, and fear of the words of saints. I don't know my fate, but I'm not afraid of it. I am insulting adults and saints. " ("The Analects? Ji) Fourth, what is the knowledge of the new-Confucius' practice of reviewing the old and learning the new Confucius said that "the virtue of nature is in practice" ("The Analects of Confucius? He is full of confidence in his moral ability, and at the same time, he "never tires of learning" and "forgets to eat in anger". Therefore, his life course is the greatest interpretation of "learning new things by reviewing old ones". Although Confucius said that "words are not deeds", in fact, he expounded his views and built his own ideological system by reviewing, inheriting and reinterpreting the past, which was a kind of overall transformation and creation. Some critics pointed out that the main difference between The Analects of Confucius and other ancient books is that by studying the changes of the meanings of some keywords in The Book of Changes, Zuo Zhuan and Guoyu before Confucius, it is found that the keywords in The Analects of Confucius belong to a complete and coherent ideological system. This system was founded by Confucius himself and was consistent, but before that, there was no such system. Due to the function of this system, many terms in The Analects of Confucius began to have universal and abstract philosophical significance. Its changes are mainly manifested in the following aspects: first, many words that were originally general vocabulary rose to the philosophical level, such as the word "knowledge" in The Book of Songs &; Time is the solution of verbs, but in The Analects of Confucius it has become the concept of assisting benevolence and righteousness. Other concepts, such as the word "zhong" in the Book of Songs, have the meanings of "appropriate" and "not extreme" in the Analects of Confucius, which, combined with "use", has become a methodology that is unchangeable by Confucianism and embodied in daily life. Secondly, some words in The Analects are not very original, but if we consider them in the overall meaning of The Analects, we will find that they have also been reformed by Confucius and have a very important and unique position. For example, the word "time" has no new explanation in the Analects of Confucius. But when it is linked with the golden mean, it has a very unique meaning, that is, the formation of the concept of "time". Confucius's "being in the middle of time" not only gives "time" a moral direction, but also makes the gentleman's words and deeds just right. This is the so-called "no hesitation, handy". Therefore, Confucius said: "The gentleman is also moderate, and the gentleman is in the middle; The meanness of the villain is also the jealousy of the villain. " (The Doctrine of the Mean) Third, changes in the ideological system have led to changes in the ideological core. In the early years of the Western Zhou Dynasty, Zhou and Zhao emphasized and respected morality, which objectively contributed to the close relationship between destiny and personnel, but their subjective desire was entirely to safeguard clan interests, and personal moral realm was not the goal of respecting morality. Confucius praised "self-denial and self-respect" and "benevolent people love others", with the goal of realizing the world of Tao, but its interests no longer belong to a certain clan group; More importantly, although Confucius didn't call himself a benevolent, what he tried to pursue was the continuous improvement of the moral and spiritual world, which was one of the most creative ideological changes in The Analects.

[Edit this paragraph] 5. Review old knowledge and learn new concrete forms in The Analects.

As mentioned above, Confucius' way of speaking is to speak to different objects and specific people under specific time and space conditions, but there is a common program and concept, that is, "the combination of Tao and Tao." But this "one" is contained in "many". Some people call this philosophical expression of Confucius "event ontology". For example, American sinologist Hao Dawei pointed out in his book On Confucius Philosophy: "Confucius' philosophy is the ontology of events, not the ontology of entities. Understanding human events does not need to resort to "quality", "attribute" or "characteristics". Therefore, Confucius is more concerned with the activities of a specific person in a specific environment, rather than the fundamental nature of goodness as an abstract morality. "678 event ontology is an ontology that integrates body, function and purpose. Ontology is not superior, but exists in specific events and can only be displayed through specific events. Therefore, the only way to express this ontology is to show it through specific events, and there are different shows in different events. Nevertheless, we can still see how Confucius and his disciples reviewed the past and learned new things. Its concrete manifestations are as follows: First, it is found that the abstract meaning contained in the "old" events (documents) fits the new situation and new topics. Zi Gong asked, "What about being poor without flattery and being rich without arrogance?"? "Confucius said," Yes. Those who are not poor and happy are rich and polite. "Zi Gong said,' If incisive, if incisive, if polished', what does it mean?" Confucius said, "If you give it, you can talk to poetry." ! Tell people who know the past. "Xia Zi (learning to learn) asked," I am smart and smiling. I look forward to my beautiful eyes. I always thought it was gorgeous. " What is it? Confucius said, "Draw hindsight." Say, "After the ceremony?" Confucius said, "Poetry is enough for business!" (Bashu) From these two examples, poetry itself does not contain the meaning realized by Zi Gong and Xia Zi, but through their abstraction, "learning" and "enlightenment" have something in common with the cultivation of gentlemen; There are similarities between "element" and "painting", and between benevolence (Taoism) and ceremony at the level of "successively". The connection between ancient documents and new situations in the abstract sense reflects its enlightening value to people. The latter example is a new idea gained from the discussion of poetry, and it is a real "review the old and learn the new". The old is the source, and the new is the association of meaning. The previous example is to quote the Book of Songs to prove the reason, which is to "seek reason" after "knowing the new" and give "reason" a new meaning. Second, use "old" events as evidence in the new situation. Or Confucius said, "Zi Xi is not a politician?" Confucius said, "The book says,' Filial piety! Be filial, be friends with brothers, and talk about politics. "Is it also the government and the government?" ("The Analects? For politics, Confucius said, "Dancing in court can be tolerated, why not?" All three schools are committed to "courage". Confucius said, "Look at each other and see the crowd, and the son of heaven sees it." ("The Analects? In both cases, Confucius quoted the sentences in Shu and Shi to prove his point of view. The meanings of these cited classic documents have not been excessively abstracted and extended. In this way, "reviewing the past" itself has no new meaning, but this old meaning is to participate in the expression of new situations and new ideas, which is very important to the current situation. Therefore, this situation is undoubtedly a kind of "learning from the old", or "learning from the new and collecting the old". Third, "old" things have been revised and reformed under the new situation. Please pray for your child's illness. Confucius said, "What are these?" Lutz said to him, "Yes. The Prayer says, "Pray to God up and down" and Confucius says, "Pray to God in the long mountains." ("The Analects? Confucius said: "Ma Mian, courtesy also; Today is also pure and frugal. I follow the crowd. Worship, courtesy also; Thank you today, Taiya. Although it is aimed at the public, I am from the bottom. " ("The Analects? Zi Han) In the first case, Lutz's "learning new facts for prayer" was opposed by Confucius, but he didn't want to criticize Lutz directly, so he used the euphemism "I prayed for a long time" to show his attitude. Obviously, in the new situation, Confucius took a "no-take" attitude towards the custom and tradition of "please pray". In the second case, Confucius distinguishes between adhering to and not adhering to the traditional etiquette system, which involves Confucius' selection criteria in the face of the new situation. Ma Mian became a fine man. Although he was frugal, he did not hurt the ceremony, so he followed the crowd. On the other hand, the worship of Thai people violates the essence of "worship" ceremony, so he chooses "bottom-up". Again, it's an "old" system. Under the new situation, Confucius chose the way suitable for ceremony from his own point of view, or reformed, abandoned or retained. This is undoubtedly a new usage of "Li".

[Edit this paragraph] VI. Review the past and learn new methods.

First, dialogue. Confucius expressed his ideas by discussing with students. In the Analects of Confucius, we can always feel the power of dialogue to produce meaning. As mentioned above, Confucius and Zi Gong, as well as Xia Zi's comments on poetry, and the unexpected questions of the students inspired Confucius and made him excited. Zi Gong was an interrogator in The Analects of Confucius. The following records show that he got the wonderful idea of "reviewing the past and learning the new": You Ran said, "Where is Master Wei Jun?" Zi Gong said, "Promise. I will ask. " He went in and said, "Who is Boyi and who is Shu Qi?" Yue: "The ancient sages are also." Say, "Are you disgusted?" He said, "If you seek benevolence, why complain!" When he left, he said, "My Lord can't do it." (The Analects of Confucius) Second, learning and thinking. Learning has a wide range in The Analects. Being knowledgeable in writing is learning, asking questions about everything is learning, and doing it is also learning. Learning is a process of understanding and accumulating knowledge of traditional laws, regulations and customs, and it is a process of enriching people. Only by "learning" and mastering as many "principles" as possible can we have the basis for learning new things. Confucius said, "I don't eat every day and I don't sleep at night. It's no use thinking about it. It is better to learn. " (The Analects of Confucius Wei Linggong) Learning is accumulation, while thinking is the way to "know the new". Ceng Zi said, "Visit the body three times a day" (The Analects of Confucius), and Confucius said, "See the sage Si Qi, but not the sage." ("The Analects of Confucius") shows that thinking is related to the specific time and space situation of the province and the individual. When individuals face new situations, they can only use existing experience and knowledge to ask real questions, which means creation and knowledge. Of course, learning and thinking can't be separated. In fact, any learning process contains thinking, and any thinking is the expansion of learning. Therefore, Confucius said, "Learning without thinking is useless, and thinking without learning is dangerous." ("The Analects of Confucius for Politics") Third, metaphor. Confucius said, "If we can draw inferences from others, we can say that the side of benevolence already exists" (The Analects of Confucius, Yong Ye). Confucius himself was good at using metaphors. Metaphor is undoubtedly an explanation of past culture and present significance, which contains creation and knowledge. Looking through the Analects of Confucius, we find that metaphor is an important way for Confucius to speak. Because the image of the vehicle is intuitive and closely related to daily life, it is easy to understand and friendly. In the process of using metaphor, the speaker endows common sense with a sense of moral novelty, and the moral meaning has gained a new way of communication because of its combination with the vehicle. Confucius said, "Governing the country by virtue is like Beichen living in his place, and all the stars share it." ("The Analects of Confucius for Politics" Zhong Gong said: "The tiller has his horns. Although he wants to use it, why come to the mountains and rivers? " Confucius said: "I don't want to be embarrassed, I am embarrassed!" Hey! " ("The Analects of Confucius Yongye")

From the above, it can be seen that "reviewing the past and learning the new" is certainly a method for Confucius to learn theory and an important condition for being a teacher, but this generalization of Confucius reflects the way of human understanding of the world more profoundly and has methodological significance. Confucius himself took the lead in consciously and successfully practicing this methodology. Analyzing this theoretical generalization of Confucius and his own practice, we find that Confucius has a profound understanding and respect for tradition, and shows great creative spirit on the basis of grasping the pulse of the times. It still seems to be full of vitality and has important enlightenment significance.