In China, comrades are also widely used as greetings between strangers, similar to "hosts". For example, "hello, comrade, how can I get to the front door?" . But nowadays young people seldom use it.
At present, homosexuality is also used as a synonym for gay men, for example, "gay bar" and "gay literature". In English, it is represented by "Gay".
The origin of the word "comrade"
Similarity means being able to tell the same opinion and ambition, which is composed of a scholar and a heart. A scholar dies for a confidant, and his heart is born with beauty!
In ancient China, "Comrade" was similar to "Sir", "Elder" and "Gentleman", and was the address of friends. In the Spring and Autumn Period, Zuo Qiuming defined the word "comrade" as "being United with one heart and one mind is a comrade".
In modern times, "Comrade" has become the title of a member of a political party. During the bourgeois-democratic revolution in China, revolutionaries called each other comrades. 1920, Mao Zedong, Luo xuezan and others began to quote the word "comrade" in their letters.
192 1 year, China * * * production party was established, and it was stipulated in the "First National Congress" party program that party member, who recognized the party's program and policies and was willing to be loyal, would be accepted as party member and become our comrade. This is the first time that our party has used the word "comrade" in official documents. And give the word "comrade" a brand-new meaning, indicating a new type of party member relations under the great goal of fighting for * * * integrism.
From 65438 to 0989, Lin Yihua, a Hong Kong native, named the first gay film festival he planned as the Hong Kong Gay Film Festival, which may be the beginning of this significance. Since then, in Chinese-speaking areas outside Chinese mainland, such as Taiwan Province Province, Hongkong, Singapore and Malaysia, the word "comrade" has gradually evolved into another name for homosexuals. It is not called "comrade", but "comrade is comrade" and "so-and-so has joined a gay group". This usage was first used for gay groups, and then its influence gradually expanded. All walks of life in the above areas have adopted this usage. For example, the Civil Affairs Bureau of the Taipei Municipal Government wrote in the Handbook of Understanding Homosexuals 200 1 Edition: "The mayor loves homosexuals."
Lin Yihua himself once said that he hoped to use the word "comrade" instead of homosexuality, which was related to Sun Yat-sen's famous saying that "the revolution has not been successful, comrades still have to work hard". On the one hand, Lin wants to point out that efforts are still needed, on the other hand, he wants to shift the focus of discussion from sexual orientation to gender issues. Since then, many people who care about various gender issues hope to use the word "Gay" to connect, tolerate and represent more people. At present, the word "gay" is not limited to homosexuals, but has been extended to four international LGBT ethnic groups, namely gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people, such as the novel Rainbow Butterfly in Yin and Yang published in Taiwan Province Province in 2004. After this meaning, the word "straight gay" appeared.
After entering the mainland in recent years, because most young people no longer use the word "comrade", this meaning came from behind. Although this new meaning is understood and used by more and more people in Chinese mainland, this extended meaning has basically not been adopted by the official media and documents in People's Republic of China (PRC).
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Homosexuality refers to attracting and/or promoting the sexual orientation of social members with the same gender identity or gender. Homosexuality and homosexual sex are not exactly the same. People who have homosexual sex are not necessarily homosexuals. Homosexuality is common in all ethnic groups, societies and historical stages in the world, but the word "homosexuality" as a modern concept was first put forward by Karl-Maria Kaelte Beni and 1869 in Hungary. This word consists of the prefix homo- (same) and the root sex in Greek. Later, it was widely used by psychiatry. Therefore, in English-speaking countries, homosexuals generally refuse to use this medical term.
Homosexuality in China is not as rare as we seem. Now my feeling is "everywhere". Gay men are generally called gay, and lesbians are called les! Moreover, homosexuality has existed in China since ancient times, and it has a fixed title: the addiction of Longyang and the addiction of broken sleeves. Many high-ranking officials and dignitaries like this.
(1) What is homosexuality?
From 65438 to 0973, the American Psychological Association and the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexual behavior from the disease classification system. The definition of homosexuality is amended as: "Homosexuality refers to a person's interest in sex, psychology, emotion and social life, and the main target is people of the same sex, and this interest is not revealed in explicit behavior."
Homosexuality is not a disease.
From 65438 to 0980, the third edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) no longer regarded homosexuality as a mental illness, while self-tension disorder homosexuality refers to those who are dissatisfied with their homosexual orientation and feel persistent and obvious troubles, and still belong to a kind of mental disorder. In addition, according to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-9) published by the World Health Organization, it is also noted that "homosexuality" has been cancelled, but "homosexuality with self-identity difficulties" is still included in the disease items. Generally speaking, no matter gay or lesbian, unless he tells you his sexual orientation, a person's sexual orientation is a psychological activity and cannot be judged from his personal behavior. In fact, homosexuality, like heterosexuality, has normal IQ, normal working ability and normal performance, but the object of love is the same-sex person! In other words, as long as people who can identify with their same-sex sexual orientation are the same as normal people, homosexuality is no longer considered as a mental disorder.
(3) Same-sex sexual behavior is not equal to homosexuality.
During the 1950 s, Dr. Kinsey divided the orientation of human sexual behavior into seven grades, from 0 to 67, so most people often define homosexuality only by sexual behavior. However, homosexual acts are quite different from homosexuality, because some homosexual acts are sporadic and situational. For example, in some cases, he had sex with Paoze in the army to vent his sexual desire, or he was forced to have sex with the same sex involuntarily in the past.
(d) Evaluation and identification of homosexuality
Sexual orientation may change over time. If the object of sexual fantasy is the same sex, but has never had sexual relations with the same sex, is this situation still recognized as homosexuality? Therefore, members of the sex therapy group conducted in-depth interviews with the semi-structured "homosexuality questionnaire", cooperated with other structured questionnaires, and considered time variables in the evaluation, asking about the past, present and future time of the case.
Common help-seeking problems of homosexuals.
Self-identification difficulty
Because homosexuals can't identify themselves as homosexuals, they are afraid of being rejected by others or their families, or they hope to change their sexual orientation through psychotherapy, which leads to anxiety, depression, insomnia and other problems.
Emotional problem
Homosexuals fall into emotional crisis because of communication barriers with their partners.
other
Homosexuals were told by their families and school teachers that they had homosexual tendencies, so parents and teachers brought cases for help, hoping to change their sexual orientation through psychotherapy and other means.
Psychologically speaking, homosexuality is regarded as the object of satisfying sexual desire. Homosexuality occurs among men and lesbianism occurs among women. Besides being limited by physiological anatomy, same-sex couples can have other forms of sexual activities and contact, and they are eager to establish a so-called "family". Due to the interference of society, morality, laws and customs, many comrades are in extreme anxiety, have a strong sense of sadness, and even have suicidal tendencies. Psychological factors; Influenced by social and environmental factors, WHO stipulated in 1992 that homosexuality is not a "disease category", so homosexuality is "innocent" and comrades need not blame themselves.
There are some criteria to judge: a homosexual usually has some signs in childhood, but his performance in childhood is just the opposite of sexual maturity. When I was a child, I liked being with the opposite sex, playing the role of the opposite sex, wearing clothes of the opposite sex, imitating different movements and so on. In adolescence, the situation changed rapidly, and he began to be interested in the same sex, loving the same sex, but expressing disgust or indifference to the opposite sex. There are some criteria: B has not been taken care of by the same-sex elders for a long time, or has been with the opposite-sex elders.
C grew up in a big environment or a small environment.
D has no "sex" interest in the opposite sex, and has never had a dream sex with the opposite sex.
E has a lasting and strong affection and sexual desire for the same sex, manifested as erection.
In addition, some temporary homosexuals, who have been hit or hurt by the opposite sex, want to entertain themselves or retaliate against others in a gay way or they have never rejected the opposite sex in essence. The object of choice is only their lifestyle (sometimes called bisexuality). They are fickle, fickle, and dangerous.
Homosexuality was invented by German doctor Benckert in 1869 (plummer, 1984). This word describes that you can't have a sexual reaction to the opposite sex, but you are attracted to the same sex (Benckert, 1869, quoted from Bullough, 1976, p. 637).
Nowadays, homosexuality, heterosexuality and bisexuality are considered as different types of "sexual orientation", which is defined as "persistent attraction to members of a specific gender in sex, feeling or illusion"; Therefore, homosexuality refers to "the basic or absolute attraction to members of the same sex" (Herek,1989; 1994, page 3).
Before Benckert coined this medical term, homosexual sex was condemned as evil by Christianity and outlawed in some European countries, including Britain. In some cases, men will be imprisoned for engaging in homosexual sex, such as the famous Oscar Wilde case in Britain a hundred years ago. Westerners believe that the origin of the concept of same-sex sexual behavior can be traced back to the twelfth century. Boswell, a famous historian of Yale University, found that homosexuals "are outstanding, influential and respected in many aspects of society in most European countries, and left an eternal mark on the cultural heritage of that era, whether in religious society or secular society."
However, since the second half of 12 century, relatively vicious hostility has appeared in popular literature and eventually spread to theology and legal literature. (boswell, 1980, p. 334). 13 and 14 centuries are an era of intolerance to any heresy, including the crusades against non-Christians, the rejection of Jews, and the increasingly serious wanton suppression of people suspected of being in danger. Boswell pointed out that this intolerance influenced European society in the following centuries. Foucault (1979) traced back in his History of Sex that with the increasing authority of government and medical profession in secular society during the industrial revolution, the condemnation of homosexuality turned from religion to secular society and medical profession.
/kloc-At the end of 0/9th century, in Europe and the United States, homosexuality was regarded as a medical diagnosis unit and a crime and illegal act due to the convergence of this historical force. However, at the beginning of the 20th century, men and women attracted by the same sex formed friendship networks and meeting places in urban areas (D 'Emilio,19811993). In a city like new york, these meeting places are widely known and frequented by the sexually liberated generation in the 1920s. Under the famous social repression in 1930s, with the promulgation of laws and the suppression by the police, the acceptance of same-sex attraction in this period came to an end. Economic oppression has forced many men to lose their jobs, thus re-emphasizing heterosexual masculinity, which may be a reason for the re-emergence of intolerance towards homosexuality (chauncey, 1994).
In the 1920s, a same-sex movement came into being in Germany, and a library and center were established in Berlin. 1939, the Nazis destroyed the center and burned down the library. Soon after, the government promulgated a law prohibiting same-sex sexual behavior, and thousands of homosexuals were imprisoned and died in concentration camps (Plant, 1986). Freud fled Germany during this period and took refuge in London. In the 1920s, he signed a petition in support of the same-sex movement, and wrote in a famous letter that homosexuality is not beneficial to society, but it is not a pathological phenomenon in the sense of mental illness.
World War II brought together an unprecedented number of men and women. In the United States, the result was to purge so-called homosexuals from the army until the end of the war, and it was further expanded in Senator joseph mccarthy's anti-gay and anti-capitalist movement in the 1950s. In this social atmosphere, AlfredKinsey and his assistant published their first scientific research report on sexual behavior in the United States, and found that a large number of men had experienced homosexual sex. Subsequent research found that these experiences also happened to women. These research materials were severely criticized, but they supported the same-sex movements in Los Angeles, San Francisco and new york at that time. There are also gay movements in Europe, including Amsterdam and Copenhagen. Same-sex newspapers, magazines, private clubs and public places are piling up, and they begin to suspect that the dominant same-sex sex behavior is a disease.
However, doctors and psychiatrists still use hormone injections, shock therapy, castration and even brain surgery to try to treat homosexual attraction. Psychoanalysts claim that family pathology leads to sexual deviations, such as homosexuality, and patients often cannot get effective treatment for several years (Haldman, 199 1). EvelynHooker of UCLA, supported by the National Institute of Mental Health, conducted an empirical study on homosexuality as a mental illness for the first time. Her research was reported at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association in 1955 and published in 1957. Hook (1957) studied 30 gay men according to the best psychological scale used at that time (Rorschach Ink Test, apperception Test and Picture-telling Test) and invited excellent scale interpreters (for example, Kloepfer was responsible for explaining Rorschach Ink Test), and compared it with 30 heterosexual men with the same age, IQ and education level. None of these people had received psychotherapy before the study. As a result, professional readers of the scale can't distinguish between homosexuals and heterosexuals, and the scores given by experts to these men are no different between homosexuals and heterosexuals. Therefore, this study shows that homosexuality does not exist as a disease unit and cannot be distinguished by psychological tests. Homosexuality is not important in the measurement of mental health. Many subsequent empirical studies support this conclusion, and sexual orientation has nothing to do with psychopathology.
◆ Medical Psychology
* Consciousness disorder * Sleep disorder * Sleepwalking disorder * Sensory disorder
* Perceptual disorders: illusion, hallucination, etc.
* Attention deficit disorder
* Memory disorders: amnesia, dysarthria and fiction, deja vu and old things like new diseases, etc.
* Mental retardation: mental retardation, dementia, etc.
* Emotional disorder: anxiety
* Will disorder
* Thinking disorder: disobedience, delusion, etc.
:: Forced state
* Speech and language barriers: stuttering, mutism, aphasia, etc.
* Personality disorder: psychopathy
* Abnormal sexual behavior: homosexuality
* Psychological defense mechanism * Nervous
* Psychotherapy: suggestion therapy, psychoanalysis therapy, gestalt therapy, behavioral therapy, systematic desensitization, aversion therapy, symbolic reward, biofeedback, hypnosis therapy, qigong therapy, etc.
* Rehabilitation psychology
* Mental health: psychological counseling, children's mental health, adolescents' mental health, adults' mental health, the elderly's mental health, group mental health, etc.
* Health psychology * Abnormal psychology * Pathological psychology * Psychophysiological medicine * Psychosomatic medicine * Nursing psychology * Clinical neuropsychology * Psychological research on acupuncture analgesia
* Defect psychology: blind psychology, deaf-mute psychology, etc.