At present, only the existence of quarks has been proved. The composition of quarks still needs a long period of research. For details, please see the quark model

The quark model

In 1964, American scientist Gell-Mann (see picture above right) proposed the quark model of hadron structure. Hadrons are a concept in the particle classification system. Protons and neutrons both belong to the category of hadrons. The word "quark" originally refers to a type of German cheese or the sound of a seagull. When Gell-Mann originally proposed this model, he did not expect it to be recognized by physicists, so he used this humorous term. Quarks are also fermions, which have spin 1/2. Because the spin of protons and neutrons is 1/2, then three quarks, if two spin up and one spins down, can form a proton or neutron with spin 1/2. The j/ψ particle was discovered by Ding Zhaozhong and others in 1974. It is actually a quark pair composed of charm quark and anticharm quark. Any particle composed of three quarks is called a baryon, and baryons and mesons are collectively called hadrons. They are so named because they all participate in the strong interaction. The electric repulsion between protons in the nucleus is very strong, but the nucleus can still exist stably because the strong interaction force (nuclear force) binds the nucleons. According to the quark model, quarks carry fractional charges, and each quark carries a charge of +2/3e or -1/3e (e is the proton charge unit). Modern particle physics believes that there are six types of quarks, namely up quarks, down quarks, strange quarks, charm quarks, top quarks, and bottom quarks. They make up all hadrons. For example, a proton consists of two up quarks. A quark is composed of a down quark, and a neutron is composed of two down quarks and an up quark. The up quark has a charge of +2/3e, and the down quark has a charge of -1/3e. Up and down quarks have slightly different masses. The mass of neutrons is slightly larger than that of protons. In the past, it was thought that this might be due to the different charge amounts of neutrons and protons. Now it seems that this is due to the fact that the mass of the down quark is slightly larger than the mass of the up quark.

The composition of protons and neutrons: a proton is composed of two up quarks and one down quark, and a neutron is composed of two down quarks and one up quark

Although the quark model At that time, many successes were achieved, but some troubles were also encountered. For example, the quark structure theory of baryons holds that baryons like ω- and δ++ can be composed of three identical quarks, both in the ground state and with the same spin direction. The existence of three identical particles at the same energy level violates the Pauli exclusion principle. The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that two fermions cannot be in the same state. Quarks have a half-integer spin and are fermions, which of course cannot violate the Pauli principle. But physicists have their own methods. Didn’t you say that the three quarks are identical? Then if I give them a number or "color" (red, yellow, blue), then the three quarks will be completely different, so they will no longer violate the Pauli principle. Indeed, in 1964, Greenberg introduced this one degree of freedom of quarks—the concept of “color.” Of course, the "color" here is not the color that is perceived visually. It is a synonym for a newly introduced degree of freedom. Similar to the charge of electrons, quarks carry color charge. In this way, each flavor of quark has three colors, and the types of quarks are suddenly expanded from the original 6 to 18. Adding their antiparticles, there are 36 types of quarks in nature. They and leptons (such as electrons, muons, tauons and their corresponding neutrinos), gauge particles (such as photons), three intermediate bosons that transmit the weak interaction that controls the decay of quark leptons, and eight that transmit strong (color) interactions The gluons that act together make up the world. The theory that quarks have color freedom has been supported by many experiments, and in the 1970s it developed into an important theory of strong interaction - quantum chromodynamics.

In 2005, quarks were discovered; at the end of June 2006, the Sixth Astronomical Congress confirmed the existence of quarks through the "Pythagorean Model". This model was led by the Chinese scintillation software company - "Dissipative Emptiness" Discovered and established by the patent development team.

The proton is composed of at least 2 kinds of 5-grain quarks: the combination is

isoton (12 times the electron body) 12 * 12 * 12 = 1728 quarks,

There are four electrons (3 times the electron body) 3 * 3 * 3 = 27,

In this way, 1836 = 1728 + 27 * 4.

The neutron is composed of at least 5 kinds of 11 quarks: the combination is proton plus

electron (1 times the electron body) 1 * 1 * 1 = 1 two particles, < /p>

Ningzi (0.5 times the electron body) 0.5 * 0.5 * 0.5 = 0.125 four particles,

Photon (0.3 times the electron body) 0.3 * 0.3 * 0.3 = 0.027 one particle,

p>

……

In this way 1838.53 = 1728 + 27 * 4 + 1 * 2 + 0.125 * 4 + 0.027 * 1 + …….

The "u son" is composed of up to 3 types of 61 quarks: the combination is

"U son" (3 times the electron body) 3 * 3 * 3 = 27 seven quarks ,

"Electron" (1 times the electron body) 1 * 1 * 1 = 1 twelve grains,

"Ningzi" (0.5 times the electron body) 0.5 * 0.5 * 0.5 = 0.125 forty-eight grains,

In this way, 207 = 27 * 7 + 1 * 12 + 0.125 * 48. As shown in the figure:

...

All these elementary particles, including leptons, mesons and nucleons in baryons

are divided into Pythagorean The quarks of the family (the simplest version of the sphere in three-dimensional space)

Some of the hyperons do not belong to the Pythagorean family of quarks.

For example, the ω- and δ++ above are composed of (4 times the electron body)-unnamed particles,

The mass is 4 * 4 * 4 = 64