1. 18th Century - Italy

Italy became the birthplace of the Renaissance, and the Renaissance had a profound impact on Europe and made European thought a big step forward.

In the early 16th century, most of Italy was under the rule of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty. After Napoleon's invasion in 1796, signs of unity that had been missing for centuries reappeared.

After the Renaissance:

The essence of the Renaissance: The original meaning of the word "Renaissance" refers to "the rebirth of the classical culture of Greece and Rome." In order to get rid of the church's control over education, Italian humanists also established new court schools with the support of some princes, nobles and local rulers. The most famous among them are the Palace School called "House of Joy" located on the outskirts of Mantua, chaired by Victorino, and the Palace School of Ferrara, chaired by Guarino. These two schools had a great influence on early humanistic education. These schools employ famous scholars and recruit students from all over Europe to provide so-called general education. After the foreign students returned, they spread Italian humanism widely.

Milan Cathedral

(Duomo del Milano)

Milan Cathedral

Milan Cathedral is located in the center of Milan, Italy. Also known as the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin, Duomo Cathedral, construction began in 1386 AD, the vaults were completed in 1500, and the gilded statue of the Virgin Mary (whose hands are said to have been stolen) on the central tower was put in place in 1774. It was finally completed in 1897 and took five centuries to complete. Not only is it a symbol of Milan, it is also the center of Milan. Napoleon's coronation ceremony was held in Milan Cathedral in 1805.

The body of the Archbishop of Milan in the 15th century is enshrined in the hall. The head is made of silver and the body is the true body of the bishop. There is a small hole in the roof of the church. At noon, the sunlight is shining on the metal bars on the floor running north and south. The ancients used this to keep time and called it the "Sun Clock". The square in front of the church was built in 1862. In the center is the equestrian bronze statue of Vittorio Emanuele II, the first king of the Kingdom of Italy. The yellow building on the right side of the square is the royal palace in the neoclassical architectural style. It was built in 1778 and has been turned into a contemporary art museum.

Foreign Rule and Enlightenment

Austria later replaced Spain to dominate Italy under the terms of the Peace of Utrecht (1713), gaining control of the Kingdom of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples. Austria was better ruled than the Spanish Empire due to the Habsburg emperors embracing the ideas of the Enlightenment. Northern Italy was directly controlled by Vienna, gaining momentum for economic growth and keeping academics flourishing. Major Italian cities, such as Milan, Rome, Turin, Venice, Florence and Naples, became fertile ground for intellectual discussion and thinking. Some Italian philosophers and literary figures were very active at the time, such as Cesare Beccaria and Anthony Jacques. Novesi and Leopold I, Grand Duke of Tuscany (also known as Leopold II of the Holy Roman Empire, who abolished capital punishment and torture in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany).

Italy was an important destination for academic travel that was popular in the 18th century. Many foreign writers and artists visited here

In the 1700s, Italy was an important stop for people traveling in Europe at that time. , during this period many foreigners, mainly aristocrats from England, visited France, Italy and Greece and admired their art, culture and monuments. The ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum were discovered in 1748, the ancient ruins of Rome were restored, and many famous figures such as Goethe, Shelley, Keats and Byron traveled throughout Italy. Some cities, such as Venice and Rome, have also become major attractions. Naples, Florence, Turin, Sicily attract many tourists, and Milan is also popular in some quarters. Keats once famously said: "Italy is a paradise for exiles."

The French Revolution of 1796 and the Napoleonic Wars (1796 to 1815) brought concepts such as democracy, sovereignty, law and state to Italy.

Plague appeared several times between the 14th and 17th centuries, affecting all of Italy. The last major epidemic in Italy occurred in Naples in 1656. A report in 1767 stated that there had been famines in northern Italy for 111 of the previous 316 years, of which only 16 had good harvests. The population of Italy also grew by one-third between 1700 and 1800, reaching 18 million.

An era in the history of Western art - the Baroque period

The art that appeared at this time was diverse, so it is necessary to explore their unified characteristics according to the relatively broad cultural tendencies of this era. . In terms of influence on art, there were three cultural tendencies that were most important at that time. The first was the emergence of the Counter-Reformation, a force that was growing both regionally and ideologically. Many monumental works of Baroque art, especially many works of Italian painting and architecture, may be directly related to the new propaganda attitude adopted by the church. The second is the consolidation of the monarchy, which then creates a strong middle class, which promotes the development of art. The influence of certain political and social developments of the time on art can be glimpsed from the construction of the palaces and gardens of Versailles by the French dynasties and the development of a market for paintings by the middle class. The third is a new interest in nature, influenced by scientific developments and the exploration of the earth. These two aspects of activities have prompted human beings to have a new view of themselves. On the one hand, they feel that they are insignificant (especially influenced by Copernicus's argument that the earth is not the center of the universe). On the other hand, they feel that they are sacred and great because they are in the center of the universe. There has been a major breakthrough in knowledge. In short, these cultural tendencies, together with their reflection in art, form what art historian Wolfgang Stechow calls a fundamentally optimistic new balance of power between religious and non-religious forces.

The emergence of the style of the Baroque period is related to the abstract characteristics of the academic school that opposed "International Mannerism". The early Baroque painters in Rome mainly included Annibale Carracci and Caravaggio. Italian Baroque sculptors and architects first recommended Gian Lorenzo Bernini.

Louis XIV style, the "official style of the royal family", can be said to be a classical version of Italian Baroque. Nicolas Poussin was the greatest French painter in the 17th century, with elegant and serious works. , logical and methodical, thus faithfully embodying the ancient artistic style and forming the characteristics of French Baroque. To study the Flanders Baroque style, it is best to start with the paintings of Peter Paul Rubens. He created large altarpieces and mythological works, and designed a series of well-conceived palace paintings and allegorical paintings.

Italy became the main European center of Baroque, and different Baroque architectural styles emerged, especially in Sicily (see Sicilian Baroque Style). Neoclassical style buildings began to appear in Rome, Milan, Turin and throughout Italy in the 18th and 19th centuries.

2. 1740s-Florence

Florence was a center for silk, wool, banking and jewelry. Florence is famous for its art, design, and craftsmanship.

Due to the marriage with the Austrian royal family in 1737, Florence was placed under the rule of the Austrian Empire.

In the 15th century, the hosta flower in Florence was guarded by the lion of the local giant businessman the Medici family. This protection lasted for three hundred years, and the emblem of the Medici family It has also become the city emblem of Florence today. From the 15th century to the mid-18th century, the three-century history of Florence can be said to be closely linked to the rise and fall of the Medici family. At that time, the family held the actual political and economic power in the local area. After the death of the last Medici ruler in 1737, Florence returned to Austrian rule.

In 1735, Franz Stephen, Duke of Lorraine in France, and Stanislav II Lesinski, King of Poland who had lost his throne, exchanged Lorraine for Tuscany. In 1736, he married Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria, heir to the Habsburg dynasty. In 1737, the Medici dynasty ended and Franz Stephen became Francesco II, Grand Duke of Tuscany. In 1740, Franz Stephen and his wife became the co-rulers of Austria, and Tuscany became the territory of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty of the Austrian Empire. In 1859, the French army defeated Austria. In 1860, Tuscany was annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia. In 1861, Tuscany became a province of the Kingdom of Italy.